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Correlation Between Serum PON1 Arylesterase Activity and Rs 854573 PON1 A < G Polymorphism with Type 2 Diabetes in an Eastern Indian Cohort
Suranjana Ray Haldar,
Atish Haldar,
Ipshit Mishra,
Arpita Chakarabarty,
Sanghamitra Sengupta,
Maitree Bhattacharyya
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
121-132
Received:
28 September 2019
Accepted:
25 October 2019
Published:
31 October 2019
Abstract: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder of glucose and lipids and characterized by defect in insulin secretion or action. Oxidative imbalance has also been implicated in the etiology of diabetes. Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an esterase and lactonase which is found in the circulation bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Alterations and associations of circulating PON1 levels with a variety of diseases including diabetes encourages us to investigate the possible association between PON1 A/G rs854573 polymorphism and serum PON1 activity with T2DM. The study essentially follows a population based case-control format with 101 diabetic and 102 healthy controls. The findings revealed association of polymorphism with the diseased status (p value 0.0002, OR 3.49, 95% CI 1.77 to 6.9). With significantly higher range of mean serum PON1 Arylesterase (AREase) activity in control (9.99 – 0.96 kU/L) than in diabetic patients (5.25 - 0.508 kU/L) (p value,<0.001), a large difference between common diabetic AA genotype and combined diabetic heterozygous and homozygous genotypes (AG+GG) for risk allele G (assymptometic p value,<0.001), or in between two AA genotypes (Diabetic/Non diabetic, p<0.001), was explored by parametric and non parametric statistical pairwise comparison. Serum PON1 activity was found to be independent of other clinical factors such as plasma glucose levels. Western blot analysis of serum samples detected a significant difference of PON1 proteins in diabetic patients and control subjects (p value 0.008). In conclusion serum PON1 AREase activity which to an extent correlated with PON1 promoter polymorphism might be a good predictor of the disease risk.
Abstract: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder of glucose and lipids and characterized by defect in insulin secretion or action. Oxidative imbalance has also been implicated in the etiology of diabetes. Paraoxonase-1 (PON1) is an esterase and lactonase which is found in the circulation bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Alte...
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Home Management of Malaria: Knowledge, Attitude and Awareness of Mothers in Babcock University
Okangba Chika Celen,
Elikwu Charles John,
Ajani Tinuade Adesola,
Nwadike Victor Ugochukwu,
Tayo Babatunde,
Shonekan Opeoluwa Akinleye,
Omeonu Azubuike Chidiebere,
Faluyi Oluwaseun Bibitayo,
Nwachukwu Nwachukwu Olusegun,
Odedeji Ayodeji Dorothy,
Chigbu-Nwaneri Kelechi,
Davis Deborah Oladunmolu,
Egharevba Etinosa,
Ejegi Toritseju Ifeoma,
Enetie Edidiong David,
Nwakanma Chiamaka Favour,
Obi-Nwaigwe Kelechi,
Odeyinka Joshua Eriseyi
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
133-142
Received:
5 August 2019
Accepted:
24 October 2019
Published:
8 November 2019
Abstract: Malaria is an endemic disease in Nigeria that is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children, especially those under the age of five years old. The home management of malaria has been shown to reduce the rate of morbidity and mortality linked to malaria. The objectives of this study were therefore to determine the knowledge on cause, signs and symptoms of malaria, health seeking behaviour of respondents, preventive measures and Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) of home management of malaria among mothers in Babcock University for their children. This research was done between April and June, 2018 in Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State. A descriptive study with a cross sectional study design was used. The study population was 274 mothers. A structured questionnaire was used as the instrument for this study. This study revealed that 96.7% of the respondents knew about malaria as a disease. 72.6% of them attributed it to the vector, mosquito, while 4.7% attributed it to the malaria parasite, Plasmodium. The commonest recognisable clinical symptom of malaria was headache (75.5%) of the study population. None of the respondents took their children to the native doctor or to Church when symptoms of malaria arose. Rather, they took them to the hospital (80.3%) or to the Pharmacy (11.3%). Regarding preventive measures, 76.6% of them made use of insecticides, which was the commonest preventive measure. In the modality of treatment, it is shown in this study that 69.0% of the mothers knew about Artemisinin Combination Therapy (ACT), which is the recommended treatment drug for malaria treatment by the World Health Organization (WHO). It was also the commonest treatment modality used (68.6%). The commonest ACT combination used was Coartem (Artemether/Lumefantrine) with 59.5% of the respondents patronizing it. The study also showed that mothers in Babcock University are well aware of the dangers of poor compliance (86.5%) and thus ensure that their children completed the drug dose. The mothers in Babcock University have good knowledge, attitude and awareness of home management practices of malaria for their children. These practices are effective in reducing malaria incidence, owing to the fact that majority of them are well educated, as proven by statistical analysis.
Abstract: Malaria is an endemic disease in Nigeria that is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children, especially those under the age of five years old. The home management of malaria has been shown to reduce the rate of morbidity and mortality linked to malaria. The objectives of this study were therefore to determine the knowledge on cause, signs...
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Empirical Study on the Therapeutic Effect of Astragalus Polysaccharides in a Mouse Model of Ulcerative Colitis
Xi Qinhua,
Teng Yajie,
Li Yueqin,
Dai Juan,
Zhang Guangbo,
Chen Weichang
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
143-147
Received:
14 September 2019
Accepted:
29 October 2019
Published:
13 November 2019
Abstract: This study was performed to study the effects of astragalus polysaccharides (APS) in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC), and to explore whether myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) involve in this process. UC model was established by dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS) inducement in mouse. Then the effects of APS on UC was evaluate at the levels of cytology and molecular biology: exploring the influence of APS on MDSC by analyzing the levels of MDSC before and after the treatments of APS; evaluating the therapeutic effects of APS on UC by pathologic histology. Data showed that the levels of MDSC in bone marrow, spleen, peripheral blood of UC mice were significantly decreased after intervention with APS, indicating APS inhibited the level of MDSC significantly. After depletion bone marrow cells in mice, we further found that the therapeutic effects of APS in MDSC- group was significantly reduced compared with MDSC+ group. It was discovered through pathological analysis that, compared with UC model group, APS intervention group mainly manifested as reduced infiltrating acute and chronic inflammatory cells, necrotic epithelial cells and epithelial ulceration. Therefore, APS could reduce the inflammatory cell infiltration in colonic tissues of UC model mice, repair the damaged colonic mucosa, and promote ulcer healing. In conclusion, APS has a potential application in the treatment of ulcerative colitis, and is dependent or partially dependent on MDSC to achieve this effects.
Abstract: This study was performed to study the effects of astragalus polysaccharides (APS) in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC), and to explore whether myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) involve in this process. UC model was established by dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS) inducement in mouse. Then the effects of APS on UC was evaluate at the le...
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Crude Extracts of Mitracarpus scaber Roots Significantly Ameliorate Paracetamol (PCM)-Induced Liver Damage in Rats
Okonkwo Francis Obiora,
Jonathan Bege,
Ibibra Joel Agat,
Nvau John Barnabas
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
148-154
Received:
16 October 2019
Accepted:
8 November 2019
Published:
27 November 2019
Abstract: Traditional medicine has received considerable acceptance in recent years, especially in Africa probably due to perceived efficacy and the fact that they are a cheap source of medicine. It can also be attributed to the pharmacological properties of plants, including antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. The hepatoprotective effects of aqueous extract and 10% ethanolic extract of the roots of Mitracarpus scaber against paracetamol (PCM)-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats of both sexes were investigated. Liver damage was induced by oral administration of 1.5mg/kg bodyweight of PCM. After pre-treatment for 6 days with aqueous and ethanolic extract of Mitracarpus scaber root (200 and 500mg/kg), hepatoprotective properties of the plant was evaluated by estimating the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), followed by histopathology, as compared with the control group (group induced with liver damage but not treated). Administration of the extracts showed significant (p<0.05) and dose-dependent hepatoprotective activity resulting in decrease in the activity of ALT and AST. These data revealed that the roots of Mitracarpus scaber aqueous and ethanolic extracts possess significant hepatoprotective activity against PCM-induced toxicity attributable to its constituent phytochemicals. The mechanism of hepatoprotection seems to be through the modulation of antioxidant enzyme systems.
Abstract: Traditional medicine has received considerable acceptance in recent years, especially in Africa probably due to perceived efficacy and the fact that they are a cheap source of medicine. It can also be attributed to the pharmacological properties of plants, including antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. The hepatoprotective effects of aqueou...
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Bioactive Compounds and Essential Oils as Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors
Edna Kurgat,
Doaa Ghareeb
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
155-158
Received:
20 September 2019
Accepted:
6 November 2019
Published:
2 December 2019
Abstract: As total life expectancy increases, the prevalence of age-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s is also increasing. Many hypotheses about Alzheimer’s disease have been developed, including cholinergic neuron damage. Acetylcholine is a major neurotransmitter in the brain and cholinergic deficits leads to cognitive dysfunction and decline. Despite decades of research and advances in our understanding of its aetiology and pathogenesis, current pharmacotherapeutic options for AD are still very limited and represent an area of need that is currently unmet. In abnormal activation of AChE, acetylcholine will degrade rapidly, especially in the brain and this is associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It has been shown that theraphy with essential oils from medicinal plants can improve cognitive performance in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Eugenol from these essential oils is reported to inhibit acetylcholinesterase, both in vitro and in vivo. This paper is set to Determine inhibitory/stimulatory effect of tested extracts on acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity. The sampled out plant extracts include Thymus vulgaris, Berberis vulgaris and Calluna vulgaris with which inhibition or activation by different chemical catalysts is performed to establish their effects in the tested natural extracts. Experimental design is used where the reagents are determined and chemical reactions performed in the procedures as outlined in the methodology section. The results of the cholinergic/ anti-cholinergic effect of tested natural extracts are then recorded. This study reflects that most of the extracts inhibited AChE activity with berberis vulgaris showing highest inhibitory effect.
Abstract: As total life expectancy increases, the prevalence of age-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s is also increasing. Many hypotheses about Alzheimer’s disease have been developed, including cholinergic neuron damage. Acetylcholine is a major neurotransmitter in the brain and cholinergic deficits leads to cognitive dysfunction and decline. Despite dec...
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Homeostatic Insulin Sensitivity Indices Is the Detection of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Shahnaz Hayat,
Fatema Jebunnesa,
Nasreen Rosy,
Liaquat Ali
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
159-163
Received:
23 September 2019
Accepted:
22 November 2019
Published:
2 December 2019
Abstract: Background: Early identification of GDM is strongly warranted for prevention of both maternal and fetal complications, but well known disadvantages of the present methods based on oral glucose challenge reduces the compliance and applicability of these methods in the screening of the disorder. Aims: The study aimed to assess FBG-based insulin sensitivity indices (ISIs) regarding their suitability as alternatives of 2 hr 75-g OGTT. Methods and Materials: Out of 300 subjects, 112 had GDM. Finally 84 GDM and 82 normal mothers were analyzed. A nested case control study was conducted with group of pregnant mothers, at 24 to 32 weeks of gestation, were recruited from BIRDEM (the tertiary hospital of Diabetic Association of Bangladesh) was screened for GDM by adapting WHO criteria. Serum glucose and insulin was measured by glucose oxidase and chemluminescence based ELISA. (ISIs) as well as glycemic and insulinemic indices were calculated their ability to detect GDM. Homeostatic formulas were used to quantify insulin sensitivity and B-cell function. McNamara test was used to calculate sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of various tests against the gold standard of OGTT. Results: HOMA%B was significantly (p<0.001) lower in GDM (113.3±51.4) than their non-GDM counterparts (207.9±91.3). In Pearson’s correlation, HOMA%B had a significant correlation with age, FBG, 75-g OGTT and fasting insulin level. HOMA%S showed significantly correlation with FBG, 75-g OGTT, fasting insulin, HOMA%B and QUICKI. Logistic regression provided significant association of HOMA%B with GDM (p=0.002) after adjusting the effect of the confounders. The value of different screening markers for predicting GDM was explored. HOMA%S at optimum cut-off value of 50 showed sensitivity of 50% and specificity of 56%, with PPV and NPV 56% and 55% respectively. QUICKI had 28% and 31% respectively at an optimum cut-off value of 0.54. Fasting insulin showed 54% and 49% respectively at cut-off value of 12.9µU/ml with PPV 50% and NPV 50%. At an optimum cut- off value of 5mmol/l, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of FBG was 82%, 78%, 79% and 81% respectively The corresponding value for combined fasting glucose and fasting insulin were 84%, 79%, 82% and 82%.Conclusion: The data suggest that (ISIs), such as simple fasting blood glucose with a cut-off value of 5.0mmol/l, for Bangladeshi population, seems to be an acceptable test in the detection of GDM.
Abstract: Background: Early identification of GDM is strongly warranted for prevention of both maternal and fetal complications, but well known disadvantages of the present methods based on oral glucose challenge reduces the compliance and applicability of these methods in the screening of the disorder. Aims: The study aimed to assess FBG-based insulin sensi...
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Effect of Streptomyces sp 3400 JX826625 Metabolites on Multidrug Resistant Candida albicans Development and Chemical Characterization of Antifungal Metabolites
Herivony Onja Andriambeloson,
Bodoharinjara Léontine Rafalisoa,
Rigobert Andrianantenaina,
Andriamiliharison Jean Rasamindrakotroka,
Rado Rasolomampianiana
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
164-173
Received:
8 November 2019
Accepted:
26 November 2019
Published:
4 December 2019
Abstract: The search of new antimicrobial metabolites remains until now an alternative to mitigate concerns caused by antimicrobial resistance. This work aims to demonstrate the ability of actinomycete strain (Streptomyces sp 3400 JX826625) to inhibit pathogen yeast growth (Candida albicans), isolated from a woman infected by recidivate candidiasis and to reveal chemical characteristics of the antifungal metabolites produced. Antifungal test using cylinder agar technique showed that the yeast pathogen was resistant to the nystatin 100.000 and the ketoconazole 50 while Streptomyces sp 3400 displayed activity with 25mm of inhibition zone diameter. The optimization of antifungal production parameters by the strain recapitulates that its culture on sporulation agar medium at a pH=5,13, incubated at 30°C for 7 days promoted the activity of the actinomycete; the butanol was the best solvent for antifungal metabolites extraction. Chemical investigation showed that liquid-liquid fractionation method of crude extract allowed to obtain four fractions (hexane, dichloromethane, butanol and aqueous fractions) in which butanol fraction exhibited the best antifungal activity (19mm) according to antifungal test by disk method. Separation of active compounds from this active fraction by TLC method revealed 10 bands and its bioautography showed two active compounds against the pathogen yeast of which the diameters of inhibition zone were 19mm and 10mm, respectively. Chemical screening of the butanolic fraction revealed the presence of terpenes, alkaloids, coumarins and anthracene derivatives family with colorimetry by TLC method. The recovering of active compounds by TLC preparative gave two methanolic fractions (MF1 and MF2) of which MIC and MFC were respectively 1,562µg/ml and 3,625µg/ml for MF1; 17µg/ml and 34µg/ml for MF2. The two compounds were stable in a range of temperature from 19°C to 46°C; however, a best antifungal activity was recorded at -20°C. UV- visible spectra of the two active compounds revealed that Streptomyces sp 3400 contained non-polyene and heptaene group of polyene molecules.
Abstract: The search of new antimicrobial metabolites remains until now an alternative to mitigate concerns caused by antimicrobial resistance. This work aims to demonstrate the ability of actinomycete strain (Streptomyces sp 3400 JX826625) to inhibit pathogen yeast growth (Candida albicans), isolated from a woman infected by recidivate candidiasis and to re...
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Management of Post-Herpetic Neuralgia PHN) by Yoga Prana Vidya (YPV) Healing: A Case Study
Rajkumari Sachdeva,
Venkata Satyanarayana Nanduri
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
174-178
Received:
27 August 2019
Accepted:
27 November 2019
Published:
10 December 2019
Abstract: Post Herpetic Neuralgia (PHN) is a chronic potentially debilitating resistant neuropathic pain. This is a single in-depth case study conducted to assess the effectiveness of Yoga Prana Vidya (YPV) Healing in the Management of PHN. Experience has shown that YPV is an effective noninvasive non-drug therapy for several ailments and this study has used YPV in the management of this severe painful condition. A 45 year old male patient suffering from PHN was treated with a set of YPV protocols. The patient was treated earlier with conventional therapy consisting of Opioid Analgesic Pentazocin injection, sedatives like valium, tricyclic antidepressant like Gapapentin for four months duration with little relief from pain. The patient was advised to perform self-practice of some YPV protocols including rhythmic yogic breathing 2-3 times a day. Initially healing was done three times a day for 3 days and then once a day for 4 days. During the first healing session, the patient slept in clinic and got relief in the pain by 20%. On the same day in the night he slept for 7 hours. Within a week the patient was completely relieved of his pain, stopped taking any analgesic, psychotropic drugs, and resumed his daily chores. YPV worked well in this case as an effective alternative noninvasive nondrug, non -touch therapy for the relief of pain in PHN when the conventional therapy was not effective and offers scope for targeted research in this field.
Abstract: Post Herpetic Neuralgia (PHN) is a chronic potentially debilitating resistant neuropathic pain. This is a single in-depth case study conducted to assess the effectiveness of Yoga Prana Vidya (YPV) Healing in the Management of PHN. Experience has shown that YPV is an effective noninvasive non-drug therapy for several ailments and this study has used...
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Prevalence of Salmonella Spp Isolated from Poultry Products (Carcasses and Eggs) from Markets and Slaughterhouses of Bamako
Brahima Sacko,
Satigui Sidibe,
Modibo Kouyate,
Oumar Traore,
Ibrahim Sow,
Kadiatou Coulibaly,
Amadou Hamadoun Babana
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
179-183
Received:
17 November 2019
Accepted:
7 December 2019
Published:
23 December 2019
Abstract: In Mali, poultry farming is a valuable source of income for the population. With huge production potential, the conditions necessary to achieve the quality and safety of poultry products must be in place. This study, conducted between February 2017and May2018 had the objective of assessing the bacteriological prevalence of salmonella in eggs and poultry carcasses slaughtered in the district of Bamako. It focused on analyzing carcasses384 and112 eggs collected from poultry at markets and slaughterhouses. The individual samples were first sown on medium preenrichment and on enrichment media followed by isolation of the bacteria on selective media and identification by biochemical tests. Work has established a global prevalence of bacteriological 12, 90%which varied depending on the type of poultry forhens14.91% against10.88%guinea fowl, the nature of the sample (eggs (09, 82%) and carcasses (13.80%) and the sampling site (the more was observed at Niamakoro monitoring Boulkassoumbougou and Hamdallaye).
Abstract: In Mali, poultry farming is a valuable source of income for the population. With huge production potential, the conditions necessary to achieve the quality and safety of poultry products must be in place. This study, conducted between February 2017and May2018 had the objective of assessing the bacteriological prevalence of salmonella in eggs and po...
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Increased Oxidative Stress Markers in Subjects Occupationally Exposed to Heavy Metals May Be Due to Poor Antioxidant Responses to Stressors
Okonkwo Francis Obiora,
Benjamin Danladi,
Bege Jonathan,
Uzonu Ikenna Ugonna,
John Barnabas Nvau,
Chukwunonso ECC Ejike
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
184-189
Received:
5 December 2019
Accepted:
12 December 2019
Published:
23 December 2019
Abstract: Artisanal miners (AM) and farmers who use water from abandoned mines for irrigation (FA) are occupationally exposed to heavy metals. Understanding their antioxidant-responses to such stressors warrants investigation. The oxidative stress levels and antioxidant-responses in 45 test subjects (AM, 30; FA, 15) and 15 control subjects who live far away from any mine (CS) were investigated. Blood concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) and the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione s-transferase (GST) and catalase (CAT) of the 60 subjects were determined/assayed using standard methods. Appropriate statistical tests were used to analyze the data. MDA concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the AM and FA groups relative to the CS/control group. GSH concentrations, GPx and CAT activities were statistically similar (P > 0.05) in all groups. However, GST activity (µmol/min/ml) was significantly reduced in the AM (8.8 ± 1.0) and FA (8.7 ± 0.5) groups compared to the CS group (10.4 ± 2.3). The inability of subjects occupationally exposed to heavy metals to increase the activity of their antioxidant enzymes and the concentration of GSH may be responsible for the heightened lipid peroxidation found in them.
Abstract: Artisanal miners (AM) and farmers who use water from abandoned mines for irrigation (FA) are occupationally exposed to heavy metals. Understanding their antioxidant-responses to such stressors warrants investigation. The oxidative stress levels and antioxidant-responses in 45 test subjects (AM, 30; FA, 15) and 15 control subjects who live far away ...
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Psychological and Social Effects of Pregnancy in Unmarried Young Women in Bui, Northwest, Cameroon
Rita Muso Fubam,
Akin-Tunde Ademola Odukogbe,
Magbagbeola David Dairo
Issue:
Volume 7, Issue 6, December 2019
Pages:
190-198
Received:
25 November 2019
Accepted:
19 December 2019
Published:
31 December 2019
Abstract: Unmarried status has been associated with low psychological and social wellbeing among young pregnant women, who are very likely to have unintended pregnancies. The current study investigated the psychological and social effects of pregnancy in unmarried young women aged 15 to 24 years in Bui, Northwest Cameroon. It was a cross-sectional facility-based survey and one hundred and eighty-four unmarried young women in six health facilities who met the inclusion criteria were recruited. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered, semi-structured questionnaire and analysed with the aid of SPSS 21.0. Univariate analysis was done for frequencies, means and standard deviations while hypotheses were tested using Chi square test and logistic regression. P value was set at p< 0.05. More than half (52.2%) of respondents were aged 20 to 24 years, 54.3% had never used a contraceptive and 82.1% reported their pregnancy was unplanned. Over half (57.1%) of the respondents reported high levels of anxiety and depression related to their pregnancy, 57.6% had a high perception of stigma and discrimination and 61.8% stopped schooling after discovering they were pregnant. Multivariate analysis revealed that compared to those who wanted their pregnancy, those who did not want their pregnancy had higher odds of experiencing high levels of anxiety and depression (AOR 6.38, 95% CI 2.93-13.88, p=0.00). It also showed that those who were not in relationship with their baby’s father had higher odds of perceiving high levels of stigma and discrimination (AOR 2.22, 95% CI 1.07-4.62, p=0.03). In conclusion, policy makers should intensify efforts to prevent unintended pregnancy among young unmarried women. They should not concentrate all efforts toward preventing unsafe abortion due to unwanted pregnancy, but focus attention also on how to help young women who choose to keep their pregnancy. Adequate and multidisciplinary supervision and support during pregnancy, labour and postpartum period will help promote psychosocial wellbeing among this group. The male partners of pregnant young women should also be empowered to take responsibility.
Abstract: Unmarried status has been associated with low psychological and social wellbeing among young pregnant women, who are very likely to have unintended pregnancies. The current study investigated the psychological and social effects of pregnancy in unmarried young women aged 15 to 24 years in Bui, Northwest Cameroon. It was a cross-sectional facility-b...
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