Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia

Girma Tadesse Bekele

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

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Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia

Girma Tadesse Bekele^*

Published in Research and Innovation (Volume 2, Issue 1)

Received: 2 November 2025 Accepted: 21 November 2025 Published: 26 December 2025

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Abstract

Agriculture in Ethiopia, which is predominantly dependent on smallholder rain-fed production systems, remains highly vulnerable to climatic variability, recurrent droughts, and increasing water scarcity. Accurate estimation of crop water requirement (CWR)- the volume of water required to satisfy crop evapotranspiration (ETo) for optimal growth is fundamental for irrigation design, crop planning, and sustainable manage net of limited water resources. In the Ethiopian context crop water requirement (CWR) coupled with crop coefficient (Kc) approaches, operationalized through decision support models such as CROPWAT and Aqua-Crop. However, substantial spatial and temporal heterogeneity in climatic variables, soil properties, and cropping systems creates high uncertainty in current estimations. Additionally, inadequate meteorological coverage, insufficient temporal data resolution, and the scarcity of locally calibrated Kc values constrain the accuracy and applicability of results across diverse agro-ecological zones. Recent climate projections under moderate emission pathways (e.g., RCP4.5) indicate a significant rise in temperature and altered rainfall distribution, potentially intensifying evapotranspiration and shifting seasonal irrigation demand. Emerging studies utilizing satellite-based evapotranspiration retrievals, downscaled climate models, and GIS-integrated hydrological simulations have improved crop water requirement (CWR) mapping and spatial analysis. Nevertheless, the integration of green-water (rain-fed) and blue water (irrigation) components into comprehensive water balance frameworks remains underdeveloped, limiting the translation of findings into actionable adaptation strategies. Bringing the methodological and data gaps through advanced spatial analysis tools, remote sensing technologies, and climate smart irrigation modeling is imperative for strengthening Ethiopia’s food and water security and ensuring resilient agricultural development under climatic conditions.

Published in	Research and Innovation (Volume 2, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
Page(s)	23-28
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

CWR, Penman-Monteith, CWR, CROPWAT, IRRIGATION, RCP, Water Stress, Ethiopia

References

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[2]	Central Statistical Agency (CSA). 2021. Agricultural Sample Survey 2020/21 (2013 E. C.): Report on Area and Production of Major Crops. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
[3]	Hassan, R., & Deressa, T. (2009). Economic impact of climate change on crop production in Ethiopia: Evidence from cross-section measures. Journal of African Economies, 18(4), 529–554.
[4]	Gebrehiwot, T., & Van der Veen, A. (2013). Farm level adaptation to climate change: The case of farmer’s adaptation in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Environmental Management, 52(1), 29–44.
[5]	Zeleke, G., et al. (2025). Green water availability and water-limited crop yields under a changing climate in Ethiopia. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 29, 863–885. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-29-863-2025
[6]	Haile Tefera, A., & Mitiku, D. T. (2021). Modeling crop water requirement and irrigation scheduling of maize in Metekel Zone, Benishangul Gumuz, Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Economics, 6(2), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijae.20210602.11
[7]	Conway, D., & Schipper, E. L. F. (2011). Adaptation to climate change in Africa: Challenges and opportunities identified from Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change, 21(1), 227-237.
[8]	Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., & Smith, M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56). FAO, Rome.
[9]	Tessema, S., Haile, M., & Abebe, T. (2021). Comparative performance of CROPWAT model for crop water requirement estimation in Ethiopian agro-ecologies. Agricultural Water Management, 254, 106965.
[10]	Hurni, H., Tato, K., & Zeleke, G. (2015). The implications of changes in population, land use, and climate on agricultural land productivity in Ethiopia. Mountain Research and Development, 25(1), 2-8.
[11]	Tefera, A., Asfaw, D., & Gebre, S. (2020). Application of remote sensing for crop water productivity assessment in Ethiopia. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 32, 100742.
[12]	Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15(5), 1577-1600.
[13]	Awulachew, S. B., Yilma, A. D., Loulseged, M., Loiskandl, W., Ayana, M., & Alamirew, T. (2010). Water resources and irrigation development in Ethiopia. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Working Paper 123, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
[14]	FAO. 2016. AQUASTAT Country Profile - Ethiopia. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
[15]	Mekoya, S., Tesfaye, M., & Kebede, T. (2024). Evaluation of empirical and FAO-56 methods for reference evapotranspiration estimation under data-scarce conditions in Ethiopia. Water Practice and Technology, 19(2), 356-368.
[16]	Hagos, M. (2020). Spatial variability of crop water requirement and irrigation demand under different agro-ecologies in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 31(2), 45-58.
[17]	Gebremedhin, M. (2022). Remote sensing-based evapotranspiration assessment using MODIS and SEBAL in Ethiopian agricultural watersheds. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 26, 100763.
[18]	Abraham, G. (2022). Assessment of climate change impact on irrigation water demand in major Ethiopian river basins. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 13(4), 1245-1258.
[19]	Abraham, G. (2020). Climate variability impacts on smallholder irrigation systems. In Proceedings of the 2020 Ethiopian Water Resources Conference (pp. 55-62). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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APA Style

Bekele, G. T. (2025). Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Research and Innovation, 2(1), 23-28. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

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ACS Style

Bekele, G. T. Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Res. Innovation 2025, 2(1), 23-28. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

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AMA Style

Bekele GT. Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Res Innovation. 2025;2(1):23-28. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13,
  author = {Girma Tadesse Bekele},
  title = {Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia},
  journal = {Research and Innovation},
  volume = {2},
  number = {1},
  pages = {23-28},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ri.20260201.13},
  abstract = {Agriculture in Ethiopia, which is predominantly dependent on smallholder rain-fed production systems, remains highly vulnerable to climatic variability, recurrent droughts, and increasing water scarcity. Accurate estimation of crop water requirement (CWR)- the volume of water required to satisfy crop evapotranspiration (ETo) for optimal growth is fundamental for irrigation design, crop planning, and sustainable manage net of limited water resources. In the Ethiopian context crop water requirement (CWR) coupled with crop coefficient (Kc) approaches, operationalized through decision support models such as CROPWAT and Aqua-Crop. However, substantial spatial and temporal heterogeneity in climatic variables, soil properties, and cropping systems creates high uncertainty in current estimations. Additionally, inadequate meteorological coverage, insufficient temporal data resolution, and the scarcity of locally calibrated Kc values constrain the accuracy and applicability of results across diverse agro-ecological zones. Recent climate projections under moderate emission pathways (e.g., RCP4.5) indicate a significant rise in temperature and altered rainfall distribution, potentially intensifying evapotranspiration and shifting seasonal irrigation demand. Emerging studies utilizing satellite-based evapotranspiration retrievals, downscaled climate models, and GIS-integrated hydrological simulations have improved crop water requirement (CWR) mapping and spatial analysis. Nevertheless, the integration of green-water (rain-fed) and blue water (irrigation) components into comprehensive water balance frameworks remains underdeveloped, limiting the translation of findings into actionable adaptation strategies. Bringing the methodological and data gaps through advanced spatial analysis tools, remote sensing technologies, and climate smart irrigation modeling is imperative for strengthening Ethiopia’s food and water security and ensuring resilient agricultural development under climatic conditions.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia
AU  - Girma Tadesse Bekele
Y1  - 2025/12/26
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
T2  - Research and Innovation
JF  - Research and Innovation
JO  - Research and Innovation
SP  - 23
EP  - 28
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
AB  - Agriculture in Ethiopia, which is predominantly dependent on smallholder rain-fed production systems, remains highly vulnerable to climatic variability, recurrent droughts, and increasing water scarcity. Accurate estimation of crop water requirement (CWR)- the volume of water required to satisfy crop evapotranspiration (ETo) for optimal growth is fundamental for irrigation design, crop planning, and sustainable manage net of limited water resources. In the Ethiopian context crop water requirement (CWR) coupled with crop coefficient (Kc) approaches, operationalized through decision support models such as CROPWAT and Aqua-Crop. However, substantial spatial and temporal heterogeneity in climatic variables, soil properties, and cropping systems creates high uncertainty in current estimations. Additionally, inadequate meteorological coverage, insufficient temporal data resolution, and the scarcity of locally calibrated Kc values constrain the accuracy and applicability of results across diverse agro-ecological zones. Recent climate projections under moderate emission pathways (e.g., RCP4.5) indicate a significant rise in temperature and altered rainfall distribution, potentially intensifying evapotranspiration and shifting seasonal irrigation demand. Emerging studies utilizing satellite-based evapotranspiration retrievals, downscaled climate models, and GIS-integrated hydrological simulations have improved crop water requirement (CWR) mapping and spatial analysis. Nevertheless, the integration of green-water (rain-fed) and blue water (irrigation) components into comprehensive water balance frameworks remains underdeveloped, limiting the translation of findings into actionable adaptation strategies. Bringing the methodological and data gaps through advanced spatial analysis tools, remote sensing technologies, and climate smart irrigation modeling is imperative for strengthening Ethiopia’s food and water security and ensuring resilient agricultural development under climatic conditions.
VL  - 2
IS  - 1
ER  -

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Author Information

Girma Tadesse Bekele

Department of Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering, Gambella University, Gambella, Ethiopia

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APA Style

Bekele, G. T. (2025). Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Research and Innovation, 2(1), 23-28. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Bekele, G. T. Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Res. Innovation 2025, 2(1), 23-28. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Bekele GT. Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia. Res Innovation. 2025;2(1):23-28. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13,
  author = {Girma Tadesse Bekele},
  title = {Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia},
  journal = {Research and Innovation},
  volume = {2},
  number = {1},
  pages = {23-28},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ri.20260201.13},
  abstract = {Agriculture in Ethiopia, which is predominantly dependent on smallholder rain-fed production systems, remains highly vulnerable to climatic variability, recurrent droughts, and increasing water scarcity. Accurate estimation of crop water requirement (CWR)- the volume of water required to satisfy crop evapotranspiration (ETo) for optimal growth is fundamental for irrigation design, crop planning, and sustainable manage net of limited water resources. In the Ethiopian context crop water requirement (CWR) coupled with crop coefficient (Kc) approaches, operationalized through decision support models such as CROPWAT and Aqua-Crop. However, substantial spatial and temporal heterogeneity in climatic variables, soil properties, and cropping systems creates high uncertainty in current estimations. Additionally, inadequate meteorological coverage, insufficient temporal data resolution, and the scarcity of locally calibrated Kc values constrain the accuracy and applicability of results across diverse agro-ecological zones. Recent climate projections under moderate emission pathways (e.g., RCP4.5) indicate a significant rise in temperature and altered rainfall distribution, potentially intensifying evapotranspiration and shifting seasonal irrigation demand. Emerging studies utilizing satellite-based evapotranspiration retrievals, downscaled climate models, and GIS-integrated hydrological simulations have improved crop water requirement (CWR) mapping and spatial analysis. Nevertheless, the integration of green-water (rain-fed) and blue water (irrigation) components into comprehensive water balance frameworks remains underdeveloped, limiting the translation of findings into actionable adaptation strategies. Bringing the methodological and data gaps through advanced spatial analysis tools, remote sensing technologies, and climate smart irrigation modeling is imperative for strengthening Ethiopia’s food and water security and ensuring resilient agricultural development under climatic conditions.},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Review on Crop Water Requirements in Ethiopia
AU  - Girma Tadesse Bekele
Y1  - 2025/12/26
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
T2  - Research and Innovation
JF  - Research and Innovation
JO  - Research and Innovation
SP  - 23
EP  - 28
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260201.13
AB  - Agriculture in Ethiopia, which is predominantly dependent on smallholder rain-fed production systems, remains highly vulnerable to climatic variability, recurrent droughts, and increasing water scarcity. Accurate estimation of crop water requirement (CWR)- the volume of water required to satisfy crop evapotranspiration (ETo) for optimal growth is fundamental for irrigation design, crop planning, and sustainable manage net of limited water resources. In the Ethiopian context crop water requirement (CWR) coupled with crop coefficient (Kc) approaches, operationalized through decision support models such as CROPWAT and Aqua-Crop. However, substantial spatial and temporal heterogeneity in climatic variables, soil properties, and cropping systems creates high uncertainty in current estimations. Additionally, inadequate meteorological coverage, insufficient temporal data resolution, and the scarcity of locally calibrated Kc values constrain the accuracy and applicability of results across diverse agro-ecological zones. Recent climate projections under moderate emission pathways (e.g., RCP4.5) indicate a significant rise in temperature and altered rainfall distribution, potentially intensifying evapotranspiration and shifting seasonal irrigation demand. Emerging studies utilizing satellite-based evapotranspiration retrievals, downscaled climate models, and GIS-integrated hydrological simulations have improved crop water requirement (CWR) mapping and spatial analysis. Nevertheless, the integration of green-water (rain-fed) and blue water (irrigation) components into comprehensive water balance frameworks remains underdeveloped, limiting the translation of findings into actionable adaptation strategies. Bringing the methodological and data gaps through advanced spatial analysis tools, remote sensing technologies, and climate smart irrigation modeling is imperative for strengthening Ethiopia’s food and water security and ensuring resilient agricultural development under climatic conditions.
VL  - 2
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download