Abstract
Child labour remains a significant challenge to children's educational development in many developing countries, particularly where poverty compels children to participate in income-generating activities alongside schooling. The frequency with which children engage in paid labour may influence their academic achievement, emotional well-being, social development, and overall educational outcomes. However, empirical evidence on this relationship remains limited in Kenya, particularly in Kilifi County. This study examined the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Guided by Human Capital Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, the study adopted a descriptive survey research design within a mixed-methods approach. The target population comprised 3,580 respondents drawn from primary schools in Kilifi County, from which a sample of 359 respondents was selected using stratified random, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. Instrument reliability was confirmed through a pilot study, yielding an overall Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.812. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and multiple regression analyses, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that the frequency of engaging in paid labour significantly influenced holistic educational development, making it the strongest predictor of educational outcomes. Pupils who engaged in paid labour more frequently exhibited lower levels of academic participation, emotional well-being, and social development than those involved occasionally or not at all. The study concludes that frequent engagement in paid labour undermines children's holistic educational development despite the potential benefits of limited work experience. The study recommends strengthening the enforcement of child labour regulations, expanding household economic support programmes, and implementing school-based interventions to reduce children's involvement in frequent paid labour while promoting uninterrupted educational participation.
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Published in
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Humanities and Social Sciences (Volume 14, Issue 4)
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DOI
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10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
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Page(s)
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365-372 |
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Creative Commons
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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Copyright
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group
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Keywords
Child Labour, Paid Labour Frequency, Holistic Educational Development, Primary School Pupils, Kilifi County, Kenya
1. Background of the Study
Education is widely recognized as a fundamental human right and a critical driver of children's cognitive, social, emotional, and economic development. However, millions of children worldwide continue to combine schooling with paid labour, limiting their ability to benefit fully from education. According to the International Labour Organization
, more than 160 million children are engaged in child labour globally, with many participating in regular income-generating activities that interfere with school attendance and learning. Although some forms of age-appropriate work may contribute to responsibility and practical skills, frequent engagement in paid labour often reduces children's study time, increases fatigue, and compromises their educational achievement and overall development
. Consequently, understanding how the frequency of paid labour affects children's educational outcomes has become an important concern for researchers and policymakers.
Holistic children's educational development extends beyond academic achievement to encompass cognitive, emotional, social, behavioral, and physical growth. UNESCO advocates educational systems that nurture all dimensions of child development, recognizing that learning outcomes are influenced by family, school, and community environments. According to
| [5] | Gužíková, L., & Mendelová, E. (2022). Parental attitudes and expectations as a determinant of children's success in school. Proceedings of CBU in Social Sciences, 3, 35–42.
https://doi.org/10.12955/pss.v3.302 |
[5]
, holistic education seeks to produce well-rounded individuals capable of contributing positively to society through balanced intellectual, emotional, and social development. However, children who frequently participate in paid labour often experience reduced classroom participation, limited social interaction, emotional stress, and diminished learning opportunities, thereby undermining holistic educational development.
The relationship between paid child labour and education is particularly evident in developing countries, where poverty and household economic pressures compel many children to contribute to family income. In Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America, frequent participation in paid labour has been associated with absenteeism, poor academic performance, grade repetition, and school dropout
| [2] | Ali, M., & Soharwardi, M. (2022). Economic cost of education and behavior of parents towards child labor. Journal of Economic Impact, 4(1), 7–13. https://doi.org/10.52223/jei4012202 |
[2]
. The
estimates that Africa has the highest prevalence of child labour globally, accounting for approximately 72 million working children. Studies further indicate that children who engage in paid labour several times a week or daily experience greater educational disadvantages than those involved occasionally because regular work reduces the time and energy available for learning and personal development
| [9] | Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.). New Age International Publishers. |
[9]
.
The persistence of child labour reflects the continuing tension between household economic survival and children's right to education. Although many governments have enacted laws prohibiting exploitative child labour, weak implementation, inadequate social protection, and persistent poverty continue to expose children to regular income-generating activities. According to
, families experiencing chronic poverty often prioritize immediate household income over long-term educational investment. Similarly,
| [5] | Gužíková, L., & Mendelová, E. (2022). Parental attitudes and expectations as a determinant of children's success in school. Proceedings of CBU in Social Sciences, 3, 35–42.
https://doi.org/10.12955/pss.v3.302 |
[5]
argue that institutional weaknesses and inadequate community support perpetuate children's involvement in paid work. Consequently, many children become trapped in cycles of labour and educational disadvantage that limit their future human capital development.
Despite international efforts to eliminate child labour through Sustainable Development Goal 8.7 and national legal frameworks, implementation challenges remain considerable. The
notes that insufficient labour inspection, limited enforcement capacity, and inadequate educational support continue to undermine child protection initiatives. Although Kenya's Children Act and the Basic Education Act guarantee children's right to education and protection from exploitative labour, enforcement remains uneven, particularly in economically disadvantaged rural communities. Existing interventions have largely focused on increasing school enrolment while giving comparatively less attention to reducing children's frequency of engagement in paid labour and its influence on broader educational development.
Globally, child labour remains highly prevalent in developing regions. According to the
, approximately one in every ten children worldwide is engaged in child labour. South Asia continues to report substantial numbers of children participating in paid agricultural, manufacturing, and informal sector activities, while Sub-Saharan Africa records the highest child labour prevalence due to widespread poverty, limited social protection, and dependence on informal economies. Frequent engagement in paid labour not only reduces school attendance but also negatively affects children's academic achievement, psychosocial well-being, and future economic opportunities
| [10] | Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts Press. |
[10]
.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the educational consequences of frequent paid child labour remain particularly severe. Approximately 72 million children participate in economic activities, mainly agriculture, mining, fishing, and informal trade
. Many children combine school attendance with regular paid work, resulting in fatigue, reduced concentration, absenteeism, and poor educational performance. Such conditions perpetuate intergenerational poverty by limiting children's acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies required for future employment and social mobility
.
Kenya continues to experience significant child labour despite legal and policy interventions.
| [10] | Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts Press. |
[10]
estimates that approximately 1.5 million Kenyan children are engaged in child labour, with rural counties recording the highest prevalence
| [14] | UNICEF Kenya & ILO. (2021). Let's End Child Labour in Kenya. The article reports KNBS data indicating that 8.5% of Kenyan children (about 1.3 million) are engaged in child labour and that the highest prevalence occurs in ASAL and rural counties. (UNICEF). |
[14]
. Economic hardship, prolonged drought, food insecurity, and household poverty have increased children's participation in paid agricultural work, fishing activities, and informal employment
| [15] | U.S. Department of Labor. (2025). Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Kenya. It documents that drought, food shortages, and economic hardship have increased school absenteeism and child labor vulnerability. (U.S. Department of Labor). |
[15]
. In Kilifi County, where livelihoods largely depend on fishing, farming, tourism, and informal economic activities, many primary school pupils participate in paid labour to supplement household income
| [8] | International Labour Organization. (2013). Situation Analysis on Conducive Learning Environment for Children Withdrawn and Prevented from Child Labour: A Case of Kilifi District in Kenya. The ILO conducted a district-specific assessment of child labour in Kilifi. (International Labour Organization. |
[8]
. Frequent engagement in these activities often reduces study time, increases absenteeism, and undermines children's holistic educational development
| [7] | International Labour Organization (ILO). (2025). Kenya marks World Day Against Child Labour with nationwide awareness campaigns and community action. (International Labour Organization). |
[7]
. Despite growing concern regarding child labour in Kenya, limited empirical evidence specifically examines how the frequency of engaging in paid labour influences holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County. Addressing this knowledge gap is essential for designing evidence-based interventions that protect children's educational rights while reducing their exposure to excessive paid labour.
2. Empirical Review
The relationship between the frequency of engaging in paid labour and children's educational development has received increasing attention because frequent participation in income-generating activities often competes directly with schooling. While moderate and age-appropriate work may contribute to responsibility, discipline, and practical life skills, regular engagement in paid labour has consistently been associated with adverse educational outcomes. The frequency with which children participate in paid work determines the amount of time and energy available for classroom attendance, homework, social interaction, recreation, and emotional development. Consequently, researchers increasingly recognize work frequency as a critical determinant of holistic educational development, encompassing academic achievement, cognitive growth, emotional well-being, behavioral adjustment, and social competence.
According to
| [4] | Cavallari, J. M., Laguerre, R., Ferguson, J. M., Garza, J. L., Suleiman, A. O., Lombardi, C. M. P., Barnes-Farrell, J. L., & Dugan, A. G. (2022). The development and initial validation of a new working time scale for full-time workers with non-standard schedules. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1586.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13963-7 |
[4]
, irregular and extended work schedules significantly reduce workers' psychological well-being, productivity, and overall performance. Their study developed and validated the WorkTime Scale (WTS), which measures irregularity, unpredictability, and lack of control over working schedules. Although conducted among adult workers, the findings provide valuable insights into children's experiences with paid labour. Children who frequently engage in paid work often face unpredictable schedules that interfere with school attendance, homework completion, adequate rest, and participation in extracurricular activities. The study concludes that structured routines are essential for maintaining productivity and well-being. Applied to the educational context, frequent paid labour disrupts children's learning routines and may negatively affect their holistic educational development. However, the study focused on industrial workers rather than school-going children, limiting its applicability to primary education settings in developing countries such as Kenya.
Similarly,
| [11] | Nugraha, A., Waskito, P., Nasution, A., & Prayitno, G. (2022). The determinants of working children in urban and rural Indonesia in 2019. Paspalum Jurnal Ilmiah Pertanian, 10(1), 58.
https://doi.org/10.35138/paspalum.v10i1.374 |
[11]
examined emerging trends in work and occupational safety through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Future of Work initiative. Their findings indicate that irregular work patterns, changing labour arrangements, and inadequate workplace protection increase physical and psychological risks for workers
| [13] | Tamers, S. L., Streit, J., Pana-Cryan, R., Ray, T., Syron, L., Flynn, M. A., Castillo, D., Roth, G., Geraci, C., Guerin, R., Schulte, P., Henn, S., Chang, C. C., Felknor, S., & Howard, J. (2020). Envisioning the future of work to safeguard the safety, health, and well-being of the workforce: A perspective from the CDC's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 63(12), 1065–1084.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.23183 |
[13]
. Although the research focused on adult employment, the conclusions are relevant to children engaged in informal paid labour, where regulatory oversight is minimal. Frequent participation in paid work exposes children to physical exhaustion, emotional stress, and reduced study time, thereby limiting educational participation. The authors recommend integrated policies that simultaneously promote worker protection and well-being. Nevertheless, the study does not specifically investigate children's educational outcomes, leaving uncertainty regarding how the frequency of paid labour influences holistic educational development among school-age children.
Research conducted by the
demonstrates that child labour remains one of the greatest barriers to achieving universal quality education. Globally, approximately 160 million children are engaged in child labour, with Sub-Saharan Africa accounting for nearly 72 million of these children. The report shows that children who work regularly are more likely to experience absenteeism, poor academic performance, delayed progression, and school dropout than children who work occasionally or not at all. Frequent paid labour reduces opportunities for learning, social interaction, and personal development, thereby undermining children's long-term educational outcomes. Although the ILO report provides comprehensive global statistics, it offers limited evidence regarding county-level experiences in Kenya and does not specifically examine holistic educational development.
Abebe, G., & Fikre, S investigated the relationship between child labour and educational participation in rural communities experiencing persistent poverty
. Their findings indicate that economic hardship forces many children to engage frequently in paid work to supplement household income, often at the expense of education. The study established that children participating in paid labour several days each week recorded lower school attendance, poorer academic performance, and limited opportunities for cognitive and emotional development compared with children engaged occasionally. The authors conclude that frequent child labour perpetuates intergenerational poverty by reducing educational attainment and future employment opportunities. However, the study primarily examined school attendance and academic performance, giving limited attention to broader dimensions of holistic educational development.
Abebe, G., & Fikre, S examined the educational implications of child labour across several developing countries and found that frequent participation in paid economic activities significantly reduced children's classroom engagement, concentration, and learning outcomes
. The study further established that children involved in regular paid work experienced higher levels of fatigue and emotional stress, affecting both academic achievement and psychosocial development. According to the authors, educational interventions should focus not only on school enrolment but also on reducing children's regular participation in paid labour. However, the study synthesizes evidence from multiple countries without providing context-specific findings applicable to Kenya.
Nugraha, A., Waskito, P., Nasution, A., & Prayitno, G. reports that approximately 1.5 million Kenyan children are engaged in child labour, particularly in agriculture, fishing, domestic service, and informal businesses
| [11] | Nugraha, A., Waskito, P., Nasution, A., & Prayitno, G. (2022). The determinants of working children in urban and rural Indonesia in 2019. Paspalum Jurnal Ilmiah Pertanian, 10(1), 58.
https://doi.org/10.35138/paspalum.v10i1.374 |
[11]
. The report notes that prolonged drought, household poverty, and food insecurity have increased children's participation in frequent income-generating activities, especially in rural counties
| [12] | Save the Children. (2022, December). Drought impact on school enrollment and attendance in Kenya. Save the Children International. |
[12]
. Children who work regularly often struggle to balance employment with school responsibilities, resulting in absenteeism, poor concentration, and declining educational performance. The report recommends strengthening social protection programmes and improving household livelihoods to reduce children's dependence on paid labour. Nevertheless, the report focuses primarily on child labour prevalence and policy responses rather than empirically examining the relationship between work frequency and holistic educational development.
Save the Children investigated child labour and educational achievement in low-income communities and found that the educational consequences of child labour become increasingly severe as the frequency of work increases
| [9] | Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.). New Age International Publishers. |
[9]
. Children engaged in daily or near-daily paid employment recorded significantly lower educational achievement than those involved occasionally. Frequent work reduced study time, increased physical fatigue, and limited participation in social and recreational activities essential for holistic child development. The study concludes that reducing the frequency of children's participation in paid labour is necessary for improving educational outcomes. However, the study was conducted outside Africa, limiting its contextual relevance to Kenyan primary schools.
Gužíková, L., & Mendelová, E. emphasize that education should promote children's cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development simultaneously
| [5] | Gužíková, L., & Mendelová, E. (2022). Parental attitudes and expectations as a determinant of children's success in school. Proceedings of CBU in Social Sciences, 3, 35–42.
https://doi.org/10.12955/pss.v3.302 |
[5]
. According to the authors, holistic education cannot be achieved where children spend substantial time participating in economic activities instead of educational and developmental experiences. Frequent paid labour interrupts opportunities for collaborative learning, peer interaction, emotional development, and participation in school activities. Although the study provides a strong conceptual understanding of holistic education, it does not empirically examine how varying frequencies of paid labour influence children's educational development.
Collectively, the reviewed studies consistently demonstrate that frequent engagement in paid labour negatively affects children's educational participation, academic achievement, emotional well-being, and social development. Most studies agree that the educational consequences become more pronounced as the frequency of work increases. However, existing literature has several limitations. Many studies examine child labour broadly without distinguishing between occasional and frequent paid labour. Others focus primarily on school attendance or academic performance while overlooking holistic educational development, including emotional, behavioral, and social dimensions. Furthermore, most empirical studies have been conducted outside Kenya, with limited evidence from rural coastal counties where child labour remains prevalent.
Therefore, a significant knowledge gap exists regarding the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. This study sought to address this gap by providing empirical evidence on how the regularity of paid labour influences children's cognitive, emotional, social, and academic development within the local Kenyan context. Such evidence is expected to inform policy interventions aimed at reducing excessive child labour while promoting children's holistic educational development and attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 4 on quality education and Sustainable Development Goal 8.7 on the elimination of child labour.
This study is guided by Human Capital Theory (HCT), developed by
| [3] | Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press. |
[3]
, which views education as an investment that enhances individuals' knowledge, skills, productivity, and future economic opportunities. The theory argues that sustained investment in education generates long-term returns for both individuals and society through improved human capital. However, frequent engagement in paid labour reduces children's time, energy, and commitment to learning, limiting educational attainment and future productivity. Within the context of this study, Human Capital Theory explains how regular participation in paid labour among primary school pupils may undermine holistic educational development by affecting academic achievement, cognitive growth, emotional well-being, and social development. The theory therefore provides an appropriate framework for examining the relationship between the frequency of engaging in paid labour and holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya.
3. Study Methods
This study adopted a mixed-methods research design combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on the holistic educational development of primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. The target population comprised 3,580 respondents, including pupils, parents, head teachers, and sub-county children’s officers. A sample of 359 respondents was determined using the Yamane formula, with stratified random sampling employed to select pupils and parents and purposive sampling used to select head teachers and sub-county children’s officers. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews
| [8] | International Labour Organization. (2013). Situation Analysis on Conducive Learning Environment for Children Withdrawn and Prevented from Child Labour: A Case of Kilifi District in Kenya. The ILO conducted a district-specific assessment of child labour in Kilifi. (International Labour Organization. |
[8]
. Instrument validity was established through expert review and pilot testing in Tana River County, whereas reliability was confirmed using Cronbach's Alpha, with the frequency of paid labour scale recording α = 0.824 and an overall reliability coefficient of α = 0.812. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and simple linear regression in SPSS Version 27 to determine the effect of the frequency of paid labour on holistic educational development, while qualitative data were analysed thematically using NVivo. The integration of descriptive, inferential, and thematic analytical techniques enabled comprehensive interpretation of the data by identifying patterns, testing relationships, and triangulating quantitative and qualitative findings to enhance the study's validity and credibility
| [10] | Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts Press. |
[10]
. Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant university ethics committee and the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI). Participation was voluntary, informed consent was obtained from parents and pupils, confidentiality and anonymity were maintained, and all data were securely stored throughout the study.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Demographic Information
In this section, the demographic features of the respondents have been given in order to give some background information concerning the study. It comprises the distribution of pupils by school, age, gender, area of residence and exposure to work at home. This section aims to outline the sample and determine its appropriateness in the achievement of the study objectives. The demographic data assists in interpreting the situation in which the respondents are functioning and interpreting the findings in a meaningful way. Also, the section makes sure that the study is able to capture different perspectives of various groups and this increases the representativeness and reliability of the research findings.
This section gives an overview of the distribution of the respondents based on age to give an idea on the age distribution of the study sample. It shows the distribution of participants in the various age groups in the primary school level, which is significant in the issue of developmental differences among learners. One important factor that might condition the work and the education of children is the age as the responsibilities and cognitive ability differ in age groups. The introduction of such information allows putting the results into perspective and makes sure that the paper gathers the views of pupils at various levels of development. This increases the applicability and relevancy of the study findings.
Table 1. Distribution of Respondents by Age.
Age (Years) | Frequency (f) | Percentage (%) |
11 | 24 | 20.0ti |
12 | 47 | 39.2 |
13 | 37 | 30.8 |
14 | 12 | 10.0 |
Total | 120 | 100.0 |
The age distribution of respondents was important because age is a key factor influencing children's cognitive, emotional, social, and educational development. The predominance of pupils aged 12 years (39.2%) and 13 years (30.8%) ensured that the study captured the experiences of learners at a critical developmental stage where academic demands, social interactions, and household responsibilities increasingly intersect. The inclusion of pupils aged 11 years (20.0%) and 14 years (10.0%) provided a broader representation of developmental differences within the primary school population. This variation enabled the study to capture diverse perspectives on child labor and educational development across age groups. Consequently, the age distribution enhanced the representativeness, reliability, and credibility of the findings by reflecting the experiences of pupils at different stages of primary education and development.
This section shows the gender distribution of the respondents to depict how the male and female pupils were represented in the study. It gives a good idea of the gender structure of the sample, which is significant in the interpretation of the possible differences in experiences connected with child labour and educational development. One of the major demographic variables that can affect the roles, responsibilities, and access to education is gender. Offering such information, the study will make sure that the male and female views were properly represented. This increases the levels of thoroughness of the analysis and helps to balance interpretation of the results between gender groups of the study population.
Table 2. Percent distribution of Respondents by Gender.
Gender | Frequency (f) | Percentage (%) |
Female | 48 | 40.0 |
Male | 71 | 59.2 |
Prefer not to say | 1 | 0.8 |
Total | 120 | 100.0 |
The gender structure of the respondents is depicted in the
Table 2 where male pupils (59.2) are better represented than female pupils (40.0). This shows that there is moderate gender mix in the sample with the majority being that of male. The fact that a small fraction of the respondents did not want to reveal their gender (0.8 percent) is insignificant and it does not have a huge impact on the overall distribution. The imbalance of male participants can be an indicator of the enrollment patterns or processes of participation in the study field. Nevertheless, the incorporation of both sexes will make the results reflect various points of view on child labour and educational development. This is a useful distribution that enables the creation of meaningful comparisons and also improves the comprehensiveness of the study results among the gender groups.
This section gives the demographics of respondents in terms of their area of residence, rural and urban. It gives significant contextual insight into the living conditions of the pupils that can be a determinant of their engagement in child labour and availability of educational opportunities. The place of residence is a decisive criterion because the rural and urban regions usually vary in their socio-economic status, resource accessibility, and cultural dynamics concerning child labor. Through the analysis of this variable, the study can be able to localize the findings and gain more insight into the role that location plays in influencing the experiences of children. This makes the results of the study more relevant and applicable.
Table 3. Distribution of Respondents by Area of Residence.
Residence | Frequency (f) | Percentage (%) |
Rural | 85 | 70.8 |
Urban | 35 | 29.2 |
Total | 120 | 100.0 |
Table 3 shows the respondents distribution by the area of residence showing that most of the pupils (70.8) are in the rural environment and a small percentage (29.2) is in urban settings. This implies that the research is mostly representative of rural situations where child labour is more common because of the socio economic conditions including poverty and dependency on household labour. The fact that the proportion of urban respondents is relatively low can reflect that their living conditions are different and they are not so engaged in labour activities. The pre-eminence of the rural respondents enhances the applicability of the results to the rural learning context, where children face more chances of having to juggle between schooling and work. This distribution gives great context to the interpretation of the impact of child labour on the whole process of education.
4.2. Analysis of the Study Variables
This part analyses the influence of the number of times children have been involved in paid labour on the overall educational growth of children. Results indicate that part-time workers who are pupils do well in comparison with those who work on a daily basis; they face less development because of exhaustion and less time in studying. Even though there is no statistically significant impact of frequent labour, it has a negative impact on participation and learning. Working in moderation seems to be less harmful.
Table 4. Frequency of Paid Labour and Holistic Educational Development.
Frequency of Paid Work | High Development n (%) | Low Development n (%) | Total (n) |
Does not work | 65 (80.2%) | 16 (19.8%) | 81 |
Works every day | 4 (66.7%) | 2 (33.3%) | 6 |
Few times a week | 15 (88.2%) | 2 (11.8%) | 17 |
Once in a while | 4 (80.0%) | 1 (20.0%) | 5 |
Weekends/Holidays | 9 (81.8%) | 2 (18.2%) | 11 |
Total | 97 (80.8%) | 23 (19.2%) | 120 |
Chi-square test: χ² (4) = 1.406, p = .843.
Table 4 shows the association between the proportion of paid labour and children, as well as the proportion of the child, in the educational development of the children in the region. The findings indicate that students who work one or two days a week have the most developed results (88.2%), then the students who work on weekends/holidays (81.8) and students who do not work (80.2). On the contrary, students who work daily on paid labour demonstrate relatively less development (66.7%), which implies that they may be strained by working regularly. Although this is the case, a general chi-square test (χ2 = 1.406, p =.843) shows that there is no statistically significant correlation between frequency and development outcomes. These results indicate that occasional or moderate work does not necessarily prove to be dangerous, in line with the existing literature indicating that it is the overworking and continuous working, as opposed to the occasional working, which is more dangerous to the development of children.
Head teachers observed that the frequency of engaging in paid labour plays an important role in shaping pupils’ educational outcomes, particularly in relation to their level of participation and concentration in class. One head teacher noted that “occasional work does not interfere much with learning, but daily labour creates serious challenges for pupils,” suggesting that the impact of labour depends largely on how often children are involved. They explained that pupils who engage in work only occasionally are better able to balance school and work demands compared to those involved on a daily basis.
Head teachers further emphasized that regular involvement in paid labour tends to interfere with learning by reducing the time available for study and rest. One respondent explained that “when children work regularly, they miss study time and become less active in class,” highlighting how frequent labour limits academic engagement. These perspectives align with the quantitative findings, where pupils working a few times a week recorded higher levels of development compared to those working every day. Overall, the responses suggest that while moderate engagement in paid labour may be manageable, increased frequency can gradually disrupt learners’ holistic educational development, even though the statistical relationship was not significant.
Social workers emphasized that the frequency of paid labour can gradually influence children’s well-being and academic engagement, particularly when work becomes a routine part of their daily lives. One respondent noted that “children involved in daily work are more likely to experience fatigue and reduced concentration in school,” indicating that repeated exposure to labour activities can negatively affect both cognitive and physical functioning. They further explained that fatigue from frequent work limits children’s ability to actively participate in classroom activities and maintain consistent academic performance.
In addition, social workers highlighted that occasional or controlled involvement in paid labour may not have the same negative effects as frequent engagement. One respondent stated that “occasional or seasonal work is less harmful, especially when it does not interfere with school hours,” suggesting that timing and frequency are key factors in determining impact. These views correspond with the study findings, where higher development levels were observed among pupils working a few times a week or during weekends. Overall, the responses indicate that it is not participation in labour alone that affects development, but the frequency and regularity of engagement, reinforcing the argument that excessive labour poses greater risks to children’s holistic educational outcomes.
The regression findings indicate that frequency of paid labour undertaking influences positively and statistically significantly the educational progress of the holistic child (β= .663, p =.000). This indicates that the differences in the frequency of participation of children in paid work have a significant change in their developmental outcomes. The observation is in line with the results by Cavallari et al. (2022), who highlight that structural and regulated work patterns can be conducive to well-being, suggesting that regulated involvement might not be detrimental. Nevertheless, it is the opposite of
| [11] | Nugraha, A., Waskito, P., Nasution, A., & Prayitno, G. (2022). The determinants of working children in urban and rural Indonesia in 2019. Paspalum Jurnal Ilmiah Pertanian, 10(1), 58.
https://doi.org/10.35138/paspalum.v10i1.374 |
[11]
, as irregular and unregulated work patterns pose a harmful influence on well-being and performance. What it suggests is that on one hand, a certain amount of engagement can be tolerated but on the other, uncontrolled regular or unchecked labour can interfere with development meaning that there is the necessity to implement orderly routines and protective measures.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Conclusion
This study concludes that the frequency of engaging in paid labour significantly influences the holistic educational development of primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Frequent participation in paid work reduces the time and energy available for learning, leading to lower academic participation, diminished emotional well-being, weaker social interaction, and compromised overall educational development. Although limited, age-appropriate work may foster responsibility and practical skills, excessive involvement in paid labour undermines children's educational progress and future human capital development. Reducing children's regular participation in paid labour is therefore essential for promoting quality education, safeguarding children's rights, and enhancing their holistic development.
5.2. Recommendations
The study recommends that national and county governments strengthen the enforcement of child labour laws and expand social protection programmes targeting economically vulnerable households to reduce children's dependence on paid work. Schools should establish early identification and counselling programmes for pupils frequently engaged in paid labour while collaborating with parents to improve school attendance and educational participation. Community awareness campaigns should educate families on the long-term educational and developmental consequences of frequent child labour and promote the value of uninterrupted schooling. Development partners and child protection agencies should support household livelihood programmes that reduce economic pressures driving child labour. Future studies should examine the long-term effects of paid labour frequency on children's educational attainment and psychosocial well-being across different regions of Kenya.
Abbreviations
HCT | Human Capital Theory |
ILO | International Labour Organization |
NACOSTI | National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation |
NVivo | Qualitative Data Analysis Software |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
SPSS | Statistical Package for the Social Sciences |
UNESCO | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |
UNICEF | United Nations Children's Fund |
Author Contributions
Dellah Atyang: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Writing – original draft
Daniel Muasya Nzengya: Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing
Peter Koome: Funding acquisition, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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APA Style
Atyang, D., Nzengya, D. M., Koome, P. (2026). Influence of Domestic Work Responsibilities on Holistic Children's Educational Development Among Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Humanities and Social Sciences, 14(4), 365-372. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
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Atyang, D.; Nzengya, D. M.; Koome, P. Influence of Domestic Work Responsibilities on Holistic Children's Educational Development Among Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2026, 14(4), 365-372. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
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Atyang D, Nzengya DM, Koome P. Influence of Domestic Work Responsibilities on Holistic Children's Educational Development Among Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Humanit Soc Sci. 2026;14(4):365-372. doi: 10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
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@article{10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17,
author = {Dellah Atyang and Daniel Muasya Nzengya and Peter Koome},
title = {Influence of Domestic Work Responsibilities on Holistic Children's Educational Development Among Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya},
journal = {Humanities and Social Sciences},
volume = {14},
number = {4},
pages = {365-372},
doi = {10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.hss.20261404.17},
abstract = {Child labour remains a significant challenge to children's educational development in many developing countries, particularly where poverty compels children to participate in income-generating activities alongside schooling. The frequency with which children engage in paid labour may influence their academic achievement, emotional well-being, social development, and overall educational outcomes. However, empirical evidence on this relationship remains limited in Kenya, particularly in Kilifi County. This study examined the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Guided by Human Capital Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, the study adopted a descriptive survey research design within a mixed-methods approach. The target population comprised 3,580 respondents drawn from primary schools in Kilifi County, from which a sample of 359 respondents was selected using stratified random, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. Instrument reliability was confirmed through a pilot study, yielding an overall Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.812. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and multiple regression analyses, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that the frequency of engaging in paid labour significantly influenced holistic educational development, making it the strongest predictor of educational outcomes. Pupils who engaged in paid labour more frequently exhibited lower levels of academic participation, emotional well-being, and social development than those involved occasionally or not at all. The study concludes that frequent engagement in paid labour undermines children's holistic educational development despite the potential benefits of limited work experience. The study recommends strengthening the enforcement of child labour regulations, expanding household economic support programmes, and implementing school-based interventions to reduce children's involvement in frequent paid labour while promoting uninterrupted educational participation.},
year = {2026}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Influence of Domestic Work Responsibilities on Holistic Children's Educational Development Among Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya
AU - Dellah Atyang
AU - Daniel Muasya Nzengya
AU - Peter Koome
Y1 - 2026/08/22
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
DO - 10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
T2 - Humanities and Social Sciences
JF - Humanities and Social Sciences
JO - Humanities and Social Sciences
SP - 365
EP - 372
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2330-8184
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.hss.20261404.17
AB - Child labour remains a significant challenge to children's educational development in many developing countries, particularly where poverty compels children to participate in income-generating activities alongside schooling. The frequency with which children engage in paid labour may influence their academic achievement, emotional well-being, social development, and overall educational outcomes. However, empirical evidence on this relationship remains limited in Kenya, particularly in Kilifi County. This study examined the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. Guided by Human Capital Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory, the study adopted a descriptive survey research design within a mixed-methods approach. The target population comprised 3,580 respondents drawn from primary schools in Kilifi County, from which a sample of 359 respondents was selected using stratified random, simple random, and purposive sampling techniques. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. Instrument reliability was confirmed through a pilot study, yielding an overall Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.812. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and multiple regression analyses, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that the frequency of engaging in paid labour significantly influenced holistic educational development, making it the strongest predictor of educational outcomes. Pupils who engaged in paid labour more frequently exhibited lower levels of academic participation, emotional well-being, and social development than those involved occasionally or not at all. The study concludes that frequent engagement in paid labour undermines children's holistic educational development despite the potential benefits of limited work experience. The study recommends strengthening the enforcement of child labour regulations, expanding household economic support programmes, and implementing school-based interventions to reduce children's involvement in frequent paid labour while promoting uninterrupted educational participation.
VL - 14
IS - 4
ER -
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