Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri; Aliyu Muhammad; Ibrahim Garba Wawata; Hannatu Abubakar Sani; Mustapha Maccido; Aminu Umar; Sayudi Haruna Yahaya; Ahmad Umar

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri, Aliyu Muhammad, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hannatu Abubakar Sani, Mustapha Maccido, Aminu Umar, Sayudi Haruna Yahaya, Ahmad Umar

Published in American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology (Volume 6, Issue 1)

Received: 20 July 2020 Accepted: 29 July 2020 Published: 20 August 2020

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

Polyethylene (PE)-based plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and tend to persistently disturb and destroy the environment. The novel approach in this research is incorporation of alkali-modified kenaf fiber into the used PE material aiming at improving its biodegradability and hydrolytic degradation. The alkaline modification of the kenaf fiber was achieved using 5wt. % sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as revealed by chemical composition analysis and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy of the alkali-treated fiber. Melt-blending approach was employed to fabricate composites using both treated and un-treated kenaf fibers together with the used low density PE, in the form of table water sachets, at various fiber-to-PE loading formulations. Characterizations of these composites were conducted for their biodegradability using Sandy soil. Additional characterizations conducted included hydrolytic degradation and thermogravimetric analysis respectively. In the results obtained for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, the alkali treated kenaf fiber-PE composites revealed a more promising performance than its corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The higher the kenaf fiber the higher the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation respectively. These composites also showed higher hydrolytic degradation as well as higher thermal stability in comparison to their corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The findings on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that alkali-modified kenaf fiber incorporated PE composites showed a more statistically significant results for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation particularly between 60 to 90 days retention periods.

Published in	American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology (Volume 6, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
Page(s)	1-9
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Polyethylene, Kenaf Fiber, Biodegradation, Hydrolytic Degradation

References

[1]	Khanam, P. N., and Almaadeed, M. A., (2015). Processing and Characterization of Polyethylene-Based Composites. Journal of Advanced Manufacturing: Polymer and Composites Science. 1 (2) 63-79.
[2]	Roland, G., Jambeck, J. R., Lavender law., K. (2017) Production,. Use, and Fate of all Plastics Ever Made. Science Advances 3 (7).
[3]	Jayasekara, R., Harding, I., Bowater, I. and Lonergan, G. (2005). Biodegradability of a Selected Range of Polymers and Polymer Blends and Standard Methods for Assessment of Biodegradation. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 13 (3).
[4]	Tajeddin, B., Abdul Rahman, R., and Abdulah, L. C., (2009). Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Kenaf Cellulose/LDPE Biocomposites. American-Eurasian Journal Agriculture & Environmental Science 5 (6): 777-785.
[5]	Arshad, K., Mujahid, M., (2011). Biodegradation of Textile Materials. Degree of Master in Textile Technology The Swedish School of Textiles. 05-08.
[6]	Siddiquee, K. M., Helali M. M., Gafur M. A., Chakraborty S., (2014). Investigation of an Optimum Method of Biodegradation Process for Jute Polymer Composites. American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) 3, (01) 200-206.
[7]	Kolybaba, M., Tabil, LG., Panigrahi, S., Crerar, W. J., Powell, T., and Wang, B. (2003). Biodegradable Polymers: Past, Present, and Future. The Society for Engineering in Agricultural, Food, and Biological systems 3, (0007).
[8]	Yıldızhan, S., Calık, A., Ozcanli, M., Serin, H., Yıldızhan, S., Calık, A., Ozcanlı, M., and Serin, H., (2018). Bio-composite materials: A Short Review of Recent Trends, Mechanical and Chemical Properties, and Applications. European Mechanical Science, 2 (3) 83-91.
[9]	Birnin-Yauri, A. U., Ibrahim, N. A., Zainuddin, N., Abdan, K., Then, Y. Y., and Chieng, B. W (2016). Influence of Kenaf Core Fibre Incorporation on the Mechanical Performance and Dimensional Stability of Oil Palm Fibre Reinforce Poly (lactic acid) Hybrid Bioomposites, BioResourse. 11 (12), 3332-3355.
[10]	Dixit, S., Goel, R., Dubey, A., and Bhalavi, T., (2017). Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite Materials. Polymers from Renewable Resources. 8.
[11]	Ismail, H., Hamid A. A and Abubakar, A., (2016). Kenaf Core Reinforced High-density Polyethylene/Soya Powder Composites. Journal of reinforced plastics and composites 29, No. 16/2010.
[12]	Sarifuddin, N., Ismail, H., and Ahmad, Z., (2013) The Effect of Kenaf Core Fibre Loading on Properties of Low Density Polyethylene/Thermoplastic Sago Starch/Kenaf Core Fiber Composites. Journal of Physical Science, 24 (2), 97–115.
[13]	Ketabchi M. R. (2016). Preparation, Characterisation and Optimisation of Cellulose Nanoparticles from Kenaf Fibre and its Application in Polylactic Acid Reinforcement. Chemical & Environmental Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering The University of Nottingham United Kingdom. (unpublished).
[14]	Adole, A. M., Yatim, J. M., Ramli S. A., Othman, A., and Mizal, NA., (2019). Kenaf Fibre and Its Bio-Based Composites: A Conspectus. Pertanika Journal of Science. & Technol. 27 (1): 297–329.
[15]	Mokhothu, T. H. (2010). Preparation and Characterization of Natural Fibre/Co-Polyester Bio composites. Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences Univerity of The Free State (Qwaqwa Campus) 8, (unpublished).
[16]	Li, X., Lope, G. T., Panigrahi, S., (2007). Chemical Treatments of Natural Fiber for Use in Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites. Journal of Polymer Environ 15, 25–33.
[17]	Kumar, R., Obrai, S., Sharma., (2011). Chemical Modifications of Natural Fiber for Composite Material. Pelagia Research Library. 2 (4) 219-228.
[18]	Chubuike O. M, Ebele C. C., Ifeany, i I. F., Okwuchukwu E. S., Festus O. E., (2017). Study on Chemical Treatments of Jute Fiber for Application in Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites (NFRPC), International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS). 4 (2) 2456-1908.
[19]	Pang, C. R., Shanks, R. A., and Dave T. (2014). Bio-composites Based on Cellulose Acetate and Kenaf Fibers: Processing and Properties, AIP Conference Proceedings 1593, 350.
[20]	Amin Tawakkal, I. S. M., (2016). Characterizations and Antimicrobial activity of Polylactic Acid/Kenaf Bio-composites containing a Natural Agent. College of Engineering and Science Victoria University Melbourne, Australia.
[21]	Tan, M. Y., Kuan, H. T. N and Lee, M. C., (2017). Characterization of Alkaline Treatment and Fiber Content on the Physical, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of Ground Coffee Waste/Oxobiodegradable HDPE Composite. International Journal of Polymer Science. 12.
[22]	Abdul Amer, Z. J., and Qasim, Saee A., (2015). Soil Burial Degradation of Polypropylene/ Starch Blend. International Journal of Technical Research and Applications 3 (1) 91-96.
[23]	Ramachandran, M., and Modi, K. (2018). A Review on Various Characterisation of PLA Based Biodegradable Composites. International Journal on Textile Engineering and Processes 4 (1) 28-29.
[24]	Alavudeen, A., Ranji, N., Karthikeyan, S., Thiruchitrambalam, M., Venkateshwaran, N. (2015). Mechanical Properties of Banana/Kenaf Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Polyester Composites: Effect of Woven Fabric and Random Orientation. Material and Design. 66 246-257.
[25]	Sahari, j. and Sapuan, S. M, (2011). Natural Fibre Reinforced Biodegradable Polymer Composites Advance Matter Science 30 166-174.
[26]	Schwarzová, I. (2016). Investigation OF Observed Changes in Treated Hemp hurds. GeoScience Engineering. (3) 22-26.
[27]	Alvin. R., Malenab, J., Ngo, J. P. S., and Michael Angelo B. (2017). Chemical Treatment of Waste Abaca for Natural Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Composite. Materials 2017. 10 (579).
[28]	Chung, T. K, Park, J. W, Hyun, J. L, Kwon, H. J, Hyun-Joong Kim, H. J, Lee, Y. K and Yin Tze, W. T. (2018). The Improvement of Mechanical Properties, Thermal Stability, and Water Absorption Resistance of an Eco- Friendly PLA/Kenaf Composite Using Acetylation. Journal of applied science., 8 (376) 10.
[29]	Jonoobi, M., Harun, J., Shakeri A., Misra, M., Oksman, K., (2009). Chemical Composition, Crstallinity, and Thermal Degradation of Bleached and Unbleached Kenaf Bast (Hibiscus cannabinus) Pulp and Nanofibers. Bioresources 4 (2), 626-639.
[30]	Narkpiban, K., Sakdaronnarong, C., Nimchua, T., Pinmanee, P., Thongkred, P., and Poonsawat, T.(2019). The Effect of Mechano-Enzymatic Treatment on the Characteristics of Cellulose Nanofiber Obtained from Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L) Bark Bio resource. 14 (1), 99-119.
[31]	Lilian, V. R. B., Bandeira, J. AV., Scienza, L. C., Zattera, A. J.(2014). Biodegradable Composites: morphology, chemical, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties of Composites of Poly (Hydroxybutyrate-CO-Hydroxyvelerate) with Curaua Fibers After Exposure to Simulated Soil. Journal OF Applied Polymer Science.
[32]	Ling, P. A., Ismail, H., Abubakar, A. (2018). Linear Low Density Polyethylene/Poly (Vinyl Alcohol)/Kenaf Composites: Effect of Natural Weathering on Functional Group, Weight Loss Characteristics, and Tensile, Morphological and Thermal Properties. Sains Malaysiana 47 (3) 571–580.

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri, Aliyu Muhammad, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hannatu Abubakar Sani, Mustapha Maccido, et al. (2020). Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology, 6(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri; Aliyu Muhammad; Ibrahim Garba Wawata; Hannatu Abubakar Sani; Mustapha Maccido, et al. Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. Am. J. Polym. Sci. Technol. 2020, 6(1), 1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri, Aliyu Muhammad, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hannatu Abubakar Sani, Mustapha Maccido, et al. Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. Am J Polym Sci Technol. 2020;6(1):1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11,
  author = {Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri and Aliyu Muhammad and Ibrahim Garba Wawata and Hannatu Abubakar Sani and Mustapha Maccido and Aminu Umar and Sayudi Haruna Yahaya and Ahmad Umar},
  title = {Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material},
  journal = {American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-9},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  abstract = {Polyethylene (PE)-based plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and tend to persistently disturb and destroy the environment. The novel approach in this research is incorporation of alkali-modified kenaf fiber into the used PE material aiming at improving its biodegradability and hydrolytic degradation. The alkaline modification of the kenaf fiber was achieved using 5wt. % sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as revealed by chemical composition analysis and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy of the alkali-treated fiber. Melt-blending approach was employed to fabricate composites using both treated and un-treated kenaf fibers together with the used low density PE, in the form of table water sachets, at various fiber-to-PE loading formulations. Characterizations of these composites were conducted for their biodegradability using Sandy soil. Additional characterizations conducted included hydrolytic degradation and thermogravimetric analysis respectively. In the results obtained for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, the alkali treated kenaf fiber-PE composites revealed a more promising performance than its corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The higher the kenaf fiber the higher the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation respectively. These composites also showed higher hydrolytic degradation as well as higher thermal stability in comparison to their corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The findings on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that alkali-modified kenaf fiber incorporated PE composites showed a more statistically significant results for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation particularly between 60 to 90 days retention periods.},
 year = {2020}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material
AU  - Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri
AU  - Aliyu Muhammad
AU  - Ibrahim Garba Wawata
AU  - Hannatu Abubakar Sani
AU  - Mustapha Maccido
AU  - Aminu Umar
AU  - Sayudi Haruna Yahaya
AU  - Ahmad Umar
Y1  - 2020/08/20
PY  - 2020
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
T2  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
JF  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
JO  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
SP  - 1
EP  - 9
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-5986
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
AB  - Polyethylene (PE)-based plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and tend to persistently disturb and destroy the environment. The novel approach in this research is incorporation of alkali-modified kenaf fiber into the used PE material aiming at improving its biodegradability and hydrolytic degradation. The alkaline modification of the kenaf fiber was achieved using 5wt. % sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as revealed by chemical composition analysis and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy of the alkali-treated fiber. Melt-blending approach was employed to fabricate composites using both treated and un-treated kenaf fibers together with the used low density PE, in the form of table water sachets, at various fiber-to-PE loading formulations. Characterizations of these composites were conducted for their biodegradability using Sandy soil. Additional characterizations conducted included hydrolytic degradation and thermogravimetric analysis respectively. In the results obtained for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, the alkali treated kenaf fiber-PE composites revealed a more promising performance than its corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The higher the kenaf fiber the higher the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation respectively. These composites also showed higher hydrolytic degradation as well as higher thermal stability in comparison to their corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The findings on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that alkali-modified kenaf fiber incorporated PE composites showed a more statistically significant results for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation particularly between 60 to 90 days retention periods.
VL  - 6
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Aliyu Muhammad

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Ibrahim Garba Wawata

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Hannatu Abubakar Sani

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Mustapha Maccido

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Aminu Umar

Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Sayudi Haruna Yahaya

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria
Ahmad Umar

Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aleiro, Nigeria

Download PDF

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri, Aliyu Muhammad, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hannatu Abubakar Sani, Mustapha Maccido, et al. (2020). Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology, 6(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri; Aliyu Muhammad; Ibrahim Garba Wawata; Hannatu Abubakar Sani; Mustapha Maccido, et al. Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. Am. J. Polym. Sci. Technol. 2020, 6(1), 1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri, Aliyu Muhammad, Ibrahim Garba Wawata, Hannatu Abubakar Sani, Mustapha Maccido, et al. Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material. Am J Polym Sci Technol. 2020;6(1):1-9. doi: 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11,
  author = {Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri and Aliyu Muhammad and Ibrahim Garba Wawata and Hannatu Abubakar Sani and Mustapha Maccido and Aminu Umar and Sayudi Haruna Yahaya and Ahmad Umar},
  title = {Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material},
  journal = {American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology},
  volume = {6},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-9},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajpst.20200601.11},
  abstract = {Polyethylene (PE)-based plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and tend to persistently disturb and destroy the environment. The novel approach in this research is incorporation of alkali-modified kenaf fiber into the used PE material aiming at improving its biodegradability and hydrolytic degradation. The alkaline modification of the kenaf fiber was achieved using 5wt. % sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as revealed by chemical composition analysis and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy of the alkali-treated fiber. Melt-blending approach was employed to fabricate composites using both treated and un-treated kenaf fibers together with the used low density PE, in the form of table water sachets, at various fiber-to-PE loading formulations. Characterizations of these composites were conducted for their biodegradability using Sandy soil. Additional characterizations conducted included hydrolytic degradation and thermogravimetric analysis respectively. In the results obtained for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, the alkali treated kenaf fiber-PE composites revealed a more promising performance than its corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The higher the kenaf fiber the higher the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation respectively. These composites also showed higher hydrolytic degradation as well as higher thermal stability in comparison to their corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The findings on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that alkali-modified kenaf fiber incorporated PE composites showed a more statistically significant results for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation particularly between 60 to 90 days retention periods.},
 year = {2020}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Effect of Alkali-modified Kenaf Fiber Incorporation on the Biodegradability and Hydrolytic Degradability of Used Polyethylene Material
AU  - Abubakar Umar Birnin-Yauri
AU  - Aliyu Muhammad
AU  - Ibrahim Garba Wawata
AU  - Hannatu Abubakar Sani
AU  - Mustapha Maccido
AU  - Aminu Umar
AU  - Sayudi Haruna Yahaya
AU  - Ahmad Umar
Y1  - 2020/08/20
PY  - 2020
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
T2  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
JF  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
JO  - American Journal of Polymer Science and Technology
SP  - 1
EP  - 9
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-5986
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajpst.20200601.11
AB  - Polyethylene (PE)-based plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and tend to persistently disturb and destroy the environment. The novel approach in this research is incorporation of alkali-modified kenaf fiber into the used PE material aiming at improving its biodegradability and hydrolytic degradation. The alkaline modification of the kenaf fiber was achieved using 5wt. % sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as revealed by chemical composition analysis and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy of the alkali-treated fiber. Melt-blending approach was employed to fabricate composites using both treated and un-treated kenaf fibers together with the used low density PE, in the form of table water sachets, at various fiber-to-PE loading formulations. Characterizations of these composites were conducted for their biodegradability using Sandy soil. Additional characterizations conducted included hydrolytic degradation and thermogravimetric analysis respectively. In the results obtained for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, the alkali treated kenaf fiber-PE composites revealed a more promising performance than its corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The higher the kenaf fiber the higher the biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation respectively. These composites also showed higher hydrolytic degradation as well as higher thermal stability in comparison to their corresponding un-treated kenaf fiber-PE composites. The findings on Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that alkali-modified kenaf fiber incorporated PE composites showed a more statistically significant results for biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation particularly between 60 to 90 days retention periods.
VL  - 6
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download