Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction

Samuel Wilberforce Offei; Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai; Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Research Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction

Samuel Wilberforce Offei^*

, Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai, Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie

Published in American Journal of Civil Engineering (Volume 14, Issue 5)

Received: 17 August 2026 Accepted: 1 September 2026 Published: 20 September 2026

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

Urbanization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana has intensified surface runoff, flooding, and water pollution due to the proliferation of impermeable surfaces that disrupt natural drainage and reduce groundwater recharge. To address this challenge, this study investigates the development of sustainable permeable paving stones as an alternative to conventional pavers, aiming to mitigate runoff impacts around the AIT Hill Top Junction area and maximize the efficiency of existing drainage infrastructure. An experimental methodology was adopted to evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic properties of permeable paving stone mixtures. A total of forty-eight samples were cast using two cement brands Dangote 42.5R and Ghacem 42.5R with fine aggregates (quarry dust), coarse aggregates (granite), and silica fume (SF) as an additive. Comprehensive tests were conducted to determine compressive strength, moisture content, workability, and permeability, while secondary data on chemical composition were analyzed to explain performance variations. The results show that the paving stones exhibit moderate permeability, with an infiltration rate of 0.625 ml/s, while also revealing that cement composition significantly affects compressive strength. Specifically, Dangote 42.5R cement, with its higher CaO and lower SiO₂ content, produced the strongest samples, achieving an average compressive strength of 26.55 N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 10.38%., the inclusion of silica fume was found to enhance strength through pozzolanic reactions. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of permeable paving stones for sustainable urban drainage systems and establish a foundational framework for improved design and construction practices. Ultimately, this research offers practical evidence for the feasibility of permeable pavements in tropical environments, contributing to more resilient stormwater management and sustainable infrastructure development.

Published in	American Journal of Civil Engineering (Volume 14, Issue 5)
DOI	10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
Page(s)	331-345
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Permeable Paving Stones, Concrete Mix Design, Cement Composition, Compressive Strength, Moisture Content, Permeability, Ordinary Portland Cement

References

[1]	Mariana, M. (2018). Porous Surfaces for Permeable Pavement: Clogging and Filtration. Politecno di Milano.
[2]	Marchioni, M. & Becciu G. (2014). Permeable Pavements used on Sustainable drainage systems (SUD): A synthetic review of recent literature. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 12(1), 87-102.
[3]	Graham, A., Day, J., Bray, B., & Mackenzie, S. (2012). Sustainable Drainage Systems: A guide for local authorities and developers.
[4]	Smith, J., & Johnson, A. (2020). Innovations in sustainable Paving Materials for Surface Runoff Control. Journal of Sustainable Engineering. 15 (2), 45-58.
[5]	Zhiji Y., Huihui G., Ming X., Biao H., David Z., Zheyun Z., Huanyan W., Yongliang L., Yonglong H., Shuai P., & Wei Z. (2021). Performance of permeable pavement systems on stormwater permeability and pollutant removal. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28, 28571-28584.
[6]	Zhuge, Y. (2010). Investigation of the Effect of Various Additives on the Strength of Environmentally Friendly Permeable Concrete. Southern Region Engineering Conference.
[7]	Miklas Scholz, (2007). Review of Permeable Pavement Systems. Building and Environment. Volume 42, Issue 11, 3830-3836.
[8]	Cetin, M. (2015). Consideration of permeable Pavements in Landscape Architecture. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 16, No 1, 385-392.
[9]	Rafiat, S. (2011). Utilization of Silica Fume in concrete: Review or hardened priorities. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. Volume 55, Issue 11, page 923-932.
[10]	Prabhat P., Bhajantri H., Bharatkumar (2020). Sustainable production of High-Performance Concrete. Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials.
[11]	Johnson, A., & Smith, J. (2020). Sustainable Paving Materials for Surface Runoff Control. Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 15(2), 45-58.
[12]	Chen, L., & Wang, Y. (2019). Design Principles and Performance Evaluation of Permeable Pavements. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 145(3), 04019012.
[13]	Brown, R., & Taylor, M. (2021). Environmental Impacts of Innovative Paving Solutions. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 28, e00265.
[14]	Lee, S., Kim, J., & Park, H. (2018). Economic Analysis of Permeable Pavement Systems. Water Resources Management, 32(8), 2765-2780.
[15]	Noor, M., Ahmad, Z., & Rahman, R. (2023). Zeolite-Enhanced Blended Cement for Concrete Paver Blocks. Construction and Building Materials, 368, 130412.
[16]	Abdulrahman, A. (2021). Effect of partial replacement of geopolymer binder materials on the fresh and mechanical properties.
[17]	Akyen, T. & Kankam, C. K. (2022). Comparative Study Analysis of Different Brands of Cements used in Ghana. Department of Civil Engineering, Kwame Nkurumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana.
[18]	Mohamed, A. (2011). Effect Of Fly Ash and Silica Fume on Compressive Strength of Self-Compacting Concrete Under Different Curing Conditions. Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Egypt.

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Offei, S. W., Ahemokhai, O. O., Ankamah-Cofie, A. A. (2026). Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. American Journal of Civil Engineering, 14(5), 331-345. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Offei, S. W.; Ahemokhai, O. O.; Ankamah-Cofie, A. A. Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. Am. J. Civ. Eng. 2026, 14(5), 331-345. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Offei SW, Ahemokhai OO, Ankamah-Cofie AA. Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. Am J Civ Eng. 2026;14(5):331-345. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14,
  author = {Samuel Wilberforce Offei and Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai and Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie},
  title = {Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction},
  journal = {American Journal of Civil Engineering},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {331-345},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajce.20261405.14},
  abstract = {Urbanization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana has intensified surface runoff, flooding, and water pollution due to the proliferation of impermeable surfaces that disrupt natural drainage and reduce groundwater recharge. To address this challenge, this study investigates the development of sustainable permeable paving stones as an alternative to conventional pavers, aiming to mitigate runoff impacts around the AIT Hill Top Junction area and maximize the efficiency of existing drainage infrastructure. An experimental methodology was adopted to evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic properties of permeable paving stone mixtures. A total of forty-eight samples were cast using two cement brands Dangote 42.5R and Ghacem 42.5R with fine aggregates (quarry dust), coarse aggregates (granite), and silica fume (SF) as an additive. Comprehensive tests were conducted to determine compressive strength, moisture content, workability, and permeability, while secondary data on chemical composition were analyzed to explain performance variations. The results show that the paving stones exhibit moderate permeability, with an infiltration rate of 0.625 ml/s, while also revealing that cement composition significantly affects compressive strength. Specifically, Dangote 42.5R cement, with its higher CaO and lower SiO₂ content, produced the strongest samples, achieving an average compressive strength of 26.55 N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 10.38%., the inclusion of silica fume was found to enhance strength through pozzolanic reactions. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of permeable paving stones for sustainable urban drainage systems and establish a foundational framework for improved design and construction practices. Ultimately, this research offers practical evidence for the feasibility of permeable pavements in tropical environments, contributing to more resilient stormwater management and sustainable infrastructure development.},
 year = {2026}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction
AU  - Samuel Wilberforce Offei
AU  - Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai
AU  - Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie
Y1  - 2026/09/20
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
T2  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JF  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JO  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
SP  - 331
EP  - 345
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-8737
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
AB  - Urbanization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana has intensified surface runoff, flooding, and water pollution due to the proliferation of impermeable surfaces that disrupt natural drainage and reduce groundwater recharge. To address this challenge, this study investigates the development of sustainable permeable paving stones as an alternative to conventional pavers, aiming to mitigate runoff impacts around the AIT Hill Top Junction area and maximize the efficiency of existing drainage infrastructure. An experimental methodology was adopted to evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic properties of permeable paving stone mixtures. A total of forty-eight samples were cast using two cement brands Dangote 42.5R and Ghacem 42.5R with fine aggregates (quarry dust), coarse aggregates (granite), and silica fume (SF) as an additive. Comprehensive tests were conducted to determine compressive strength, moisture content, workability, and permeability, while secondary data on chemical composition were analyzed to explain performance variations. The results show that the paving stones exhibit moderate permeability, with an infiltration rate of 0.625 ml/s, while also revealing that cement composition significantly affects compressive strength. Specifically, Dangote 42.5R cement, with its higher CaO and lower SiO₂ content, produced the strongest samples, achieving an average compressive strength of 26.55 N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 10.38%., the inclusion of silica fume was found to enhance strength through pozzolanic reactions. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of permeable paving stones for sustainable urban drainage systems and establish a foundational framework for improved design and construction practices. Ultimately, this research offers practical evidence for the feasibility of permeable pavements in tropical environments, contributing to more resilient stormwater management and sustainable infrastructure development.
VL  - 14
IS  - 5
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Samuel Wilberforce Offei

Department of Civil Engineering, Accra Institute of Technology, Accra, Ghana

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0009-5635-0994
Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai

Department of Civil Engineering, Accra Institute of Technology, Accra, Ghana
Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie

Department of Civil Engineering, Accra Institute of Technology, Accra, Ghana

Download PDF

Submit an Article

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Offei, S. W., Ahemokhai, O. O., Ankamah-Cofie, A. A. (2026). Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. American Journal of Civil Engineering, 14(5), 331-345. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Offei, S. W.; Ahemokhai, O. O.; Ankamah-Cofie, A. A. Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. Am. J. Civ. Eng. 2026, 14(5), 331-345. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Offei SW, Ahemokhai OO, Ankamah-Cofie AA. Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction. Am J Civ Eng. 2026;14(5):331-345. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14,
  author = {Samuel Wilberforce Offei and Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai and Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie},
  title = {Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction},
  journal = {American Journal of Civil Engineering},
  volume = {14},
  number = {5},
  pages = {331-345},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajce.20261405.14},
  abstract = {Urbanization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana has intensified surface runoff, flooding, and water pollution due to the proliferation of impermeable surfaces that disrupt natural drainage and reduce groundwater recharge. To address this challenge, this study investigates the development of sustainable permeable paving stones as an alternative to conventional pavers, aiming to mitigate runoff impacts around the AIT Hill Top Junction area and maximize the efficiency of existing drainage infrastructure. An experimental methodology was adopted to evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic properties of permeable paving stone mixtures. A total of forty-eight samples were cast using two cement brands Dangote 42.5R and Ghacem 42.5R with fine aggregates (quarry dust), coarse aggregates (granite), and silica fume (SF) as an additive. Comprehensive tests were conducted to determine compressive strength, moisture content, workability, and permeability, while secondary data on chemical composition were analyzed to explain performance variations. The results show that the paving stones exhibit moderate permeability, with an infiltration rate of 0.625 ml/s, while also revealing that cement composition significantly affects compressive strength. Specifically, Dangote 42.5R cement, with its higher CaO and lower SiO₂ content, produced the strongest samples, achieving an average compressive strength of 26.55 N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 10.38%., the inclusion of silica fume was found to enhance strength through pozzolanic reactions. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of permeable paving stones for sustainable urban drainage systems and establish a foundational framework for improved design and construction practices. Ultimately, this research offers practical evidence for the feasibility of permeable pavements in tropical environments, contributing to more resilient stormwater management and sustainable infrastructure development.},
 year = {2026}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Innovation of Paving Stones for the Control of Surface Runoff for a Sustainable Environment: A Case Study of AIT to Block Factory Junction
AU  - Samuel Wilberforce Offei
AU  - Obalolorun Oluwatobi Ahemokhai
AU  - Ama Annorwah Ankamah-Cofie
Y1  - 2026/09/20
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
T2  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JF  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JO  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
SP  - 331
EP  - 345
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-8737
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20261405.14
AB  - Urbanization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana has intensified surface runoff, flooding, and water pollution due to the proliferation of impermeable surfaces that disrupt natural drainage and reduce groundwater recharge. To address this challenge, this study investigates the development of sustainable permeable paving stones as an alternative to conventional pavers, aiming to mitigate runoff impacts around the AIT Hill Top Junction area and maximize the efficiency of existing drainage infrastructure. An experimental methodology was adopted to evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic properties of permeable paving stone mixtures. A total of forty-eight samples were cast using two cement brands Dangote 42.5R and Ghacem 42.5R with fine aggregates (quarry dust), coarse aggregates (granite), and silica fume (SF) as an additive. Comprehensive tests were conducted to determine compressive strength, moisture content, workability, and permeability, while secondary data on chemical composition were analyzed to explain performance variations. The results show that the paving stones exhibit moderate permeability, with an infiltration rate of 0.625 ml/s, while also revealing that cement composition significantly affects compressive strength. Specifically, Dangote 42.5R cement, with its higher CaO and lower SiO₂ content, produced the strongest samples, achieving an average compressive strength of 26.55 N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 10.38%., the inclusion of silica fume was found to enhance strength through pozzolanic reactions. These findings provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of permeable paving stones for sustainable urban drainage systems and establish a foundational framework for improved design and construction practices. Ultimately, this research offers practical evidence for the feasibility of permeable pavements in tropical environments, contributing to more resilient stormwater management and sustainable infrastructure development.
VL  - 14
IS  - 5
ER  -

Copy | Download