Livestock production is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are primarily generated through enteric fermentation and manure management. Methane alone is over 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2) in terms of global warming potential, making its reduction a critical target for climate change mitigation. This review explores the role of improved forage management as a sustainable strategy to reduce GHG emissions from ruminant livestock. Enhanced forage quality through the use of high-protein species, digestible silage, and legumes rich in plant secondary compounds such as tannins, saponins, essential oils, and flavonoids has demonstrated potential in mitigating CH4 production by altering rumen fermentation and reducing methanogenic activity. Additionally, incorporating alternative forage crops like Medicago sativa (lucerne), Plantago lanceolata (plantain), and Brachiaria spp. can improve nitrogen use efficiency and reduce N2O emissions from excreta. Improved forage systems also contribute significantly to soil carbon sequestration, enhancing soil fertility and water retention while offsetting atmospheric CO2. By integrating these climate-smart forage practices, livestock systems can increase productivity and resilience while lowering their environmental footprint. The findings of this review highlight the critical importance of forage-based strategies in supporting global efforts to achieve methane reduction targets and promote sustainable livestock development.
| Published in | American Journal of Zoology (Volume 8, Issue 4) |
| DOI | 10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13 |
| Page(s) | 93-101 |
| Creative Commons |
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited. |
| Copyright |
Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group |
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Improved Forage Management, Methane Mitigation Sustainable Livestock Development
| [1] | Agarwal, N., Kamra, D. N., Chaudhary, L. C., & Patra, A. K. Effect of Sapindus mukorossi Extracts on in vitro Methanogenesis and Fermentation Characteristics in Buffalo Rumen Liquor. Journal of Applied Animal Research. 2006, 30(1), 1–4. |
| [2] | Arelovich, H. M., Abney, C. S., Vizcarra, J. A., & Galyean, M. L. Effects of dietary neutral detergent fiber on intakes of dry matter and net energy by dairy and beef cattle: Analysis of published data, The Professional Animal Scientist. 2008, 24(5), 375–383. |
| [3] | Bama, K. S. and Babu. Perennial forages as a tool for sequestering atmospheric carbon by best management practices for better soil quality and environmental safety. Forage Research. 2016, 42(3): 149-157. |
| [4] | Beauchemin, K. A., McGinn, S. M., Martinez, T. F. & McAll ister, T. A. Use of condensed tannin extract from quebracho trees to reduce methane emissions from cattle. Journal of Animal Science. 2007. 85(8), 1990 1996. |
| [5] | Benchaar C, Pomar C, Chiquette J. Evaluation of dietary strategies to reduce methane production in ruminants: a modelling approach. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 2001. 81(4): 563-574. |
| [6] | Berhanu, Y., Olav, L., Nurfeta, A., Angassa, A. and Aune, J. B.. Methane emissions from ruminant livestock in Ethiopia: Promising forage species to reduce CH4 emissions. Agriculture. 2019. 9(6), 1-16. |
| [7] | Boadi, D. A. and Wittenberg, K. M. (2002) Methane Production from Dairy and Beef Heifers Fed Forages Differing in Nutrient Density Using the Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Tracer Gas Technique. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 2002, 82, 201-206. |
| [8] | Dana Olijhoek, Peter Lund. (2017). Methane production by ruminants. Department of Animal science AU-Foulum. Aarhus University, Denmark. |
| [9] | Das, H., & Rai, A. K. Forage crops hold potential for soil carbon sequestration: A measure for mitigating climate change. Indian Farmer. 2002, 7(05), 389–391. |
| [10] | FAO (2016). Greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy demand from small ruminant supply chains: Guidelines for assessment. Livestock environmental assessment and performance partnership. Draft public Rev. Rome, Italy. |
| [11] | FAO. (2006). Livestock’s long shadow, environmental issues and options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. |
| [12] | FAO. (2013a). Greenhouse gas emissions from pork and chicken supply chains, a global life cycle assessment. FAO, Rome. Italy. |
| [13] | FAO. (2013b). Greenhouse gas emissions from ruminant supply chains, a global life cycle assessment. FAO, Rome. |
| [14] | FAO-New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre. (2017). Supporting low emissions development in the Ethiopian dairy cattle sector—reducing enteric methane for food security and livelihoods. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. |
| [15] | Faurès, J. M., Bartley, D., Bazza, M., Burke, J., Hoogeveen, J., Soto, D., & Steduto, P. (2013). Climate Smart Agriculture: Sourcebook; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Rome, Italy. |
| [16] | Frei, M. Lignin: Characterization of a multifaceted crop component: Review Article. The Scientific World Journal. 2013, 25. |
| [17] | Gerber, P. J., Hristov, A. N., Henderson, B., Makkar, H., Oh, J., Lee, C., Meinen, R., Montes, F., Ott, T., Firkins, J., Rotz, A., Dell, C., Adesogan, A. T., Yang, W. Z., Tricarico, J. M., Kebreab, E., Waghorn, G., Dijkstra, J., & Oosting, S). Technical options for the mitigation of direct methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock: A review. Animal. 2013, 7, 220–234. |
| [18] | Goel G, Makkar HPS., & Becker K. Changes in micro bial community structure, methanogenesis and rumen fermentation in response to saponin-rich fractions from different plant materials. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2008, 105(3): 770-7. |
| [19] | Harper, K. J.; McNeill, D. M. The Role iNDF in the Regulation of Feed Intake and the Importance of Its Assessment in Subtropical Ruminant Systems (the Role of iNDF in the Regulation of Forage Intake). Agriculture. 2015, 5, 778-790. |
| [20] | Hess, H. D., Beuret, R. A., Lotscher, M., HindrichsenI, K., & Machmüller, A. Ruminal fermentation, methanogenesis and nitrogen utilization of sheep receiving tropical grass hay-concentrate diets offered with Sapindus Saponaria fruits and Cratylia argentea foliage. Journal of Animal Science. 2004, 79(1), 177-189. |
| [21] | Hindrichsen, I. K., Wettstein, H. R., Machmuller, A., Jorg, B., Kreuzer, M. E. (2005). Effect of the carbohydrate composition of feed concentrates on methane emission from dairy cows and their slurry. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2005, 107(1-3): 329-50. |
| [22] | Hook S. E., Wright, Andre denis, G., & McBride, Brian. W. (2010). Methanogens: Methane Producers of the Rumen and Mitigation Strategies. Archaea. 2010, 30: 2010: 945785. |
| [23] | Hristov, A. N., Oh, J., Firkins, J. L., Dijkstra, J., Kebreab, E., Waghorn, G., Makkar, H. P., Adesogan, A. T., Yang, W., Lee, C., Gerber, P. J., Henderson, B., & Tricarico, J. M. Special topics–Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animal operations: I. A review of enteric methane mitigation options. Journal of Animal Science. 2013, 91(11), 5045–5069. |
| [24] | Hristov, A. N., Oh, J., Lee, C., Meinen, R., Montes, F., Ott, T., Firkins, J., Rotz, A., Dell, C., Adesogan, A., Yang, W., Tricarico, J., Kebreab, E., Waghorn, G., Dijkstra, J. & Oosting, S. Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in livestock production – A review of technical options for non-CO2 emissions. Edited by Pierre J. Gerber, Benjamin Henderson and Harinder P. S. Makkar. FAO Animal Production and Health. 2013, 177-226. FAO, Rome, Italy. |
| [25] | Idupulapati, R., Peters, M., Van der Hoek, R., Castro, A., Subbarao, G., Cadisch, G., & Rincón, A. Tropical forage-based systems for climate-smart livestock production in Latin America. Rural 2. 2014, 4: 12-15. |
| [26] |
IPCC. Summary for policymakers. In Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems; Shukla, P. R., Skea, J., Calvo Buendia, E., Masson-Delmotte, V., Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D. C., Zhai, P., Slade, R., Connors, S., van Diemen, R., Ferrat, M., Haughey, E., Luz, S., Neogi, S., Pathak, M., Petzold, J., Portugal Pereira, J., Vyas, P., Huntley, E., Kissick, K., Belkacemi, M., Malley, J., Eds.; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland; 2019. Available from:
https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/ Accessed 5 October 2023. |
| [27] | IPCC. Climate Change: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); 2007. |
| [28] | Jayanegara, A., Goel, G., Makkar, H. P. S., & Becker, K. (2015). Divergence between purified hydrolysable and condensed tannin effects on methane emission, rumen fermentation and microbial population in vitro. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 209, 60-68. |
| [29] | Jayanegara, A., Leiber, F., & Kreuzer, M. (2012). Meta- analysis of the relationship between dietary tannin level and methane formation in ruminants from in vivo and in vitro experiments. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 96(3), 365– 375. |
| [30] | Keady, T. W. J., Marley, C. M., Scollan, N. D. Grass and alternative forage silages for beef cattle and sheep: Effects on animal performance. In Proceedings of the 16th International Silage Conference, Hämeenlinna, Finland, 2012; pp. 210–228. |
| [31] | Kristiansen, S., Painter, J., & Shea, M. Animal agriculture and climate change in the US and UK elite media: volume, responsibilities, causes and solutions. Environmental Communication. 2021, 15(2): 153-172. |
| [32] | Kundu, C. K., Das, H. and Ghosh, P. K. 2019. Soil organic carbon sequestration potential and economic profitability of perennial forage crops under different mulching environments. Range Management and Agroforestry. 40(1): 83-88. |
| [33] | Makkar, H. P. S., Vercoe, P. E. Measuring Methane Production from Ruminants. 15 editions. Springer. 2007. Berlin, Germany. |
| [34] | Molina, I. C., Angarita, E. A., Mayorga, O. L., Chará, J., & Barahona-Rosales, R. Effect of Leucaena leucocephala on methane production of Lucerna heifers fed a diet based on Cynodon plectostachyus. Livestock Science. 2016, 185: 24-9. |
| [35] | Moore, K. J., & Jung, H. J. G. Lignin and fiber digestion. Rangeland Ecology & Management/Journal of Range Management Archives. 2001, 54(4), 420-430. |
| [36] | Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K, et al. (1998). Mitigating Agricultural Emissions of Methane. Climatic Change. 1998, 40, 39–80. |
| [37] | Mueller-Harvey, I. Unravelling the conundrum of tannins in animal nutrition and health. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2006, 86, 13. |
| [38] |
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Greenhouse Gases. 2020. Available from:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/monitoring-references/faq/greenhouse-gases.php Accessed 10 September 2020. |
| [39] | Okpara, M. O. "Methane emissions in ruminants: perspectives on measurement and estimation methods." Russian Agricultural Sciences. 2018, 44(3): 290-294. |
| [40] | Olagaray, K E., & Bradford, B. J. Plant flavonoids to improve productivity of ruminants– A review. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2019, 251: 21 36. |
| [41] | Oskoueian, E., Abdullah, N., & Oskoueian, A. Effects of flavonoids on rumen fermentation activity, methane production, and microbial population. BioMed Research International. 2013: 1–8. |
| [42] | Patra, A. K., Kamra, D. N., & Agarwal, N. (Effect of leaf extracts on fermentation of feds and methanogenesis with rumen liquor of buffalo. Indian Journal Animal Science. 2008, 78, 91–96. |
| [43] | Patra AK, Saxena J. The effect and mode of action of saponins on the microbial populations and fermentation in the rumen and ruminant production. Nutrition Research Reviews. 2009, 22(2): 204-19. |
| [44] | Phelan, P., Moloney, A. P., McGeough, E. J., Humphreys, J., Bertilsson, J., O'Riordan, E. G., & O'Kiely, P. (2015). Forage legumes for grazing and conserving in ruminant production systems. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 2015, 34(1–3), 281–326. |
| [45] | Sainju, U. M., Lenssen, A. W., (2011). Soil nitrogen dynamics under dry land alfalfa and durum forage cropping sequences, Soil Science Society of America Journal. 2011, 75(2), 669–677. |
| [46] | Sejian, V. K., Naqvi, S. M. Livestock and climate change: mitigation strategies to reduce methane production. In Greenhouse Gases: Capturing, Utilization and Reduction, InTech; 2012, 09. |
| [47] | Shibata M, Terada F. Factor’s affecting methane production and mitigation in ruminants. Animal Science Journal. 2010, 81(1): 2-10. |
| [48] | Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., Miller, H. L., Eds. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the 4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2007, pp. 996. |
| [49] | Stams, A., Plugge, C. Electron transfer in syntrophic communities of anaerobic bacteria and archaea. Natural Review Microbiology. 2009, 7, 568–577. |
| [50] | Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T. D., Castel, V., Rosales, M., de Haan, C. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization; 2006. ISBN 978-9251055717. |
| [51] |
Subbarao GV, Yoshihashi T, Worthington M, Nakahara K, Ando Y, Sahrawat KL, Rao IM, Lata JC, Kishii M, Braun HJ. Suppression of soil nitrification by plants. Plant Scince. 2015, 233: 155-164.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.01.012 Epub 2015 Jan 28. |
| [52] | Sundaram, S. M., Sivakumar, T., Sankaran, V. M., Rajkumar, J. S. I. and Nishanth, B. (2012). Farming forage crops for improving soil organic carbon stocks in agricultural lands. International Journal of Research in Biological Sciences. 2012, 2(3): 116-119. |
| [53] | Suybeng, B., Charmley, E., Gardiner, C. P., Malau-Aduli, B. S., Malau-Aduli, A. E. Methane emissions and the use of desmanthus in beef cattle production in Northern Australia. Animals. 2019, 9(8), 542. |
| [54] | Szumacher-Strabel, M., & Cie´ slak, A. (2010). Potential of phytofactors to mitigate rumen ammonia and methane production. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2010, 19: 319 37. |
| [55] | Tavendale, M. H., Meagher., L. P., Pacheco, D., Walker N, Attwood G. T., & Sivakumaran, S. Methane production from in vitro rumen incubations with Lotus pedunculatus and Medicago sativa, and effects of extractable condensed tannin fractions on methanogenesis. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2005, 123–124, 403–19. |
| [56] | Torrent, J., Johnson, D. E. Methane production in the large intestine of sheep. In Energy Metabolism of Farm Animals, Aguilera, J. F., Ed., EAAP Publication No. 76. Granada, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas; 1994, pp. 391–394. |
| [57] | Tubiello, F. N., Salvatore, M., Rossi, S., Ferrara, A., Fitton, N., & Smith, P. (2013). The FAOSTAT database of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Environmental Research Letters, 2013. 8, 015009. |
| [58] | Ugbogu, E. A., Elghandour M. M. M. Y., Ikpeazu, V. O., Buendía, G. R., Molina, O. M, & Arunsi, U. O. (2019). The potential impacts of dietary plant natural products on the sustainable mitigation of methane emission from livestock farming. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2019, 213, 915–25. |
| [59] | Van Dorland HA, Wettstein HR, Leuenberger H, Kreuzer M. Effect of supplementation of fresh and ensiled clovers to ryegrass on nitrogen loss and methane emission of dairy cows. Livestock Science. 2007, 111(1-2), 57-69. |
| [60] | Van Gastelen, S., Dijkstra, J., & Bannink, A. Are dietary strategies to mitigate enteric methane emission equally effective across dairy cattle, beef cattle, and sheep? Journal of Dairy Science. 2019, 102(7), 6109-6130. |
| [61] | Van Soest PJ. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. O & B Books. Inc., Corvallis, OR. 1982. 374. 33. |
| [62] | Waghorn GC, Clark DA. Feeding value of pastures for ruminants. New Zealand Veterinary Journal. 2004, 52(6): 320-31. |
APA Style
Wudu, A. M. (2025). Role of Improved Forages in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ruminant Livestock: A Review. American Journal of Zoology, 8(4), 93-101. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13
ACS Style
Wudu, A. M. Role of Improved Forages in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ruminant Livestock: A Review. Am. J. Zool. 2025, 8(4), 93-101. doi: 10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13
Share This Article
Twitter
Linked In
Facebook
Copy
Download@article{10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13,
author = {Abebe Mosneh Wudu},
title = {Role of Improved Forages in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ruminant Livestock: A Review
},
journal = {American Journal of Zoology},
volume = {8},
number = {4},
pages = {93-101},
doi = {10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajz.20250804.13},
abstract = {Livestock production is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are primarily generated through enteric fermentation and manure management. Methane alone is over 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2) in terms of global warming potential, making its reduction a critical target for climate change mitigation. This review explores the role of improved forage management as a sustainable strategy to reduce GHG emissions from ruminant livestock. Enhanced forage quality through the use of high-protein species, digestible silage, and legumes rich in plant secondary compounds such as tannins, saponins, essential oils, and flavonoids has demonstrated potential in mitigating CH4 production by altering rumen fermentation and reducing methanogenic activity. Additionally, incorporating alternative forage crops like Medicago sativa (lucerne), Plantago lanceolata (plantain), and Brachiaria spp. can improve nitrogen use efficiency and reduce N2O emissions from excreta. Improved forage systems also contribute significantly to soil carbon sequestration, enhancing soil fertility and water retention while offsetting atmospheric CO2. By integrating these climate-smart forage practices, livestock systems can increase productivity and resilience while lowering their environmental footprint. The findings of this review highlight the critical importance of forage-based strategies in supporting global efforts to achieve methane reduction targets and promote sustainable livestock development.
},
year = {2025}
}
TY - JOUR T1 - Role of Improved Forages in Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ruminant Livestock: A Review AU - Abebe Mosneh Wudu Y1 - 2025/11/12 PY - 2025 N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13 DO - 10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13 T2 - American Journal of Zoology JF - American Journal of Zoology JO - American Journal of Zoology SP - 93 EP - 101 PB - Science Publishing Group SN - 2994-7413 UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajz.20250804.13 AB - Livestock production is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are primarily generated through enteric fermentation and manure management. Methane alone is over 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2) in terms of global warming potential, making its reduction a critical target for climate change mitigation. This review explores the role of improved forage management as a sustainable strategy to reduce GHG emissions from ruminant livestock. Enhanced forage quality through the use of high-protein species, digestible silage, and legumes rich in plant secondary compounds such as tannins, saponins, essential oils, and flavonoids has demonstrated potential in mitigating CH4 production by altering rumen fermentation and reducing methanogenic activity. Additionally, incorporating alternative forage crops like Medicago sativa (lucerne), Plantago lanceolata (plantain), and Brachiaria spp. can improve nitrogen use efficiency and reduce N2O emissions from excreta. Improved forage systems also contribute significantly to soil carbon sequestration, enhancing soil fertility and water retention while offsetting atmospheric CO2. By integrating these climate-smart forage practices, livestock systems can increase productivity and resilience while lowering their environmental footprint. The findings of this review highlight the critical importance of forage-based strategies in supporting global efforts to achieve methane reduction targets and promote sustainable livestock development. VL - 8 IS - 4 ER -
Department of Animal Science, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia
Information